Foreign Relations The image of an independent and sovereign state depends on its foreign relations or foreign policy. However, these relations, which are considered important to a country, are subject to change for the sake of the country's interests. Bangladesh has pursued its foreign relations or foreign policy since its emergence as an independent state in 1971, although the policy underwent remarkable changes during the last 25 years. The provisional government formed during the war of liberation drew up an outline of the foreign relations of Bangladesh before the country came into being as an independent state. According to this outline Bangladesh declared the principles of non-alignment, peaceful coexistence, and opposition to colonialism, racialism and imperialism as the main aspects of its foreign policy. Immediately after the country's independence these principles of Bangladesh were reiterated by the then Foreign Minister during his first visit to India in January 1972. In following these principles of foreign policy Bangladesh took a different stand on the issues of colonialism, imperialism, racialism and non-alignment in contrast with the foreign policy of the Pakistan period.

It is worth mentioning that from the very beginning Pakistan considered it important to seek close relations with the western countries including the United States, and it also joined the military alliances called SEATO and CENTO formed through the initiative of the United States. As a result, the foreign policy of Pakistan was regarded as pro-western and vitiated with cold-war attitudes by India, a founder member of the Non-Aligned Movement, as well as by other countries. At that time awami league was a supporter of this foreign policy, and Prime Minister huseyn shaheed suhrawardy, an Awami League leader, was of the opinion that it was sensible of Pakistan to side with the mighty United States in pursuing its foreign policy. However, East Pakistan Awami League amended its political manifesto, and in the party's constitution published in 1969 it pronounced its unequivocal support to an independent and non-aligned foreign policy, a policy of peaceful coexistence, and to all the movements of the world against imperialism, colonialism and autocratic rule. A progressive section of the main party and its students' front played a key role in shifting the party's position with regard to foreign policy.

Constitutional provisions and declaration on foreign policy The constitution provides that the foreign policy of Bangladesh would be guided by a number of fundamental principles. These principles were stated in the Articles 25(a), (b) and (c) of the Constitution. These are as follows: The State shall base its international relations on the principles of respect for national sovereignty and equality, non-interference in the internal affairs of other countries, peaceful settlement of international disputes, and respect for international law and the principles enunciated in the United Nations Charter, and on the basis of those principles shall (a) strive for the renunciation of the use of force in international relations and for general and complete disarmament; (b) uphold the right of every people freely to determine and build up its own social, economic and political system by ways and means of its own free choice; and (c) support oppressed peoples throughout the world waging a just struggle against imperialism, colonialism or racialism'.

The amendment to the Constitution introduced through Martial Law proclamation by ziaur rahman, who came into power after the fall of Awami League and Mostaq government in August 1975 and November 1975 respectively, made an addition to it. A newly appended Sub-article 25(2) stated: 'The State shall endeavour to consolidate, preserve and strengthen fraternal relations among Muslim countries based on Islamic solidarity'. The policy on declaration of war was mentioned in Article 63 of the Constitution which states that war shall not be declared, and the Republic shall not participate in any war except with the assent of the jatiya sangsad (Parliament). Article 145(a) on foreign treaty states: 'All treaties with foreign countries shall be submitted to the President who shall cause them to be laid before Parliament, provided that any such treaty connected with national security shall be laid in a secret session of Parliament'. As regards foreign policy it was declared at the outset that Bangladesh would be the Switzerland of the East, that is to say, it would seek friendly relations with all the states. From these statements it can be assumed that there were endeavours to build up an impartial image of the state so far as foreign relation is concerned. These pronouncements resulted from an idealistic point of view, and it was not possible for the post-Awami League governments to implement them. As Bangladesh could not remain as impartial as Switzerland with regard to different international issues (which is also not possible in reality), nor it could establish diplomatic relations with the Arab countries and Israel at the same time. Besides, such a concept of impartiality on the part of a small and economically dependent country can be taken as a mere theoretical concept.

Goals of foreign policy As for the goals of foreign policy, in the beginning it was as necessary to get international recognition as an independent state as it was essential to obtain foreign loan and assistance for economic reconstruction. In three and a half years' time following the country's liberation no countries except Saudi Arabia, Libya and China considered the reality of Bangladesh as unacceptable. The stand taken by these three countries with regard to Bangladesh were influenced by their own ideology and regional policy on South Asia.

After the overthrow of the government of sheikh mujibur rahman in August 1975, the short-lived Mostaq government declared that the goal of its foreign policy would be to seek relations with the countries which had not yet recognized Bangladesh or established diplomatic relations with it. As the goal of the foreign policy of the country the government headed by Ziaur Rahman (1977-1981) emphasized the importance of creating an environment of peace and stability as a prerequisite for improving the standard of living of the people through economic and social progress. The foreign policy of the short-lived Mostaq government, unlike other national policies, did not possess any special aspects which deserve mention. However, although the theoretical aspects of the foreign policies of the Mujib and the Zia governments were identical, there were differences in their ideological inclinations and in selecting their priorities. The Zia government did not abandon the policies of 'opposition to imperialism, colonialism and racialism' which were put in the Constitution by the Mujib government as part of the country's foreign policy, but nevertheless it adopted a policy of establishing relations with the Muslim countries on the basis of Islamic solidarity through appending a new article (Article 25(2)) to the Constitution. Besides, as regards foreign relations, his government discarded the pro-Indian and pro-Soviet attitudes of the previous government and aligned itself with the United States, China and the Muslim world.

On the other hand, after the Zia government the policies adopted by bangladesh nationalist party (BNP) with regard to foreign policy continued to be pursued by the military government of hussain muhammad ershad and the government of jatiya party established by him (1982-1990). However, as regards relations with the neighbouring India, the plan of regional cooperation followed under the South Asian cooperation initiative taken towards the end of the BNP regime, reduced the tension between India and Bangladesh, and the situation remained unchanged during the time of the government of Jatiya Party.

Increasing the number of allies within the international community including South Asia is regarded as one of the important goals of the foreign policy of Bangladesh. The concept of regional stability and security was viewed in different ways by the governments before and after 15 August 1975. Bangladesh and India held the same opinion about the sources of threats to the security or stability of this region. At that time diplomatic moves were made in order to resolve bilateral problems with India for the maintenance of national security. At the same time attempts were made to dispel the fear of India through seeking close relations with other countries of this region as well as with countries outside the region.

Immediately before the emergence of Bangladesh the movement of warships of the big powers, including the superpowers, in the Indian Ocean increased, and, as a result, the states bordering the Indian Ocean felt threatened with the possibility of nuclear warfare in the waters of this ocean. Against this backdrop a resolution adopted in the United Nations General Assembly on 16 December 1971 urged to declare the Indian Ocean as a 'peace zone'. Bangladesh expressed its wholehearted support to it. However, as regards turning the Indian Ocean into a peace zone, there were distinct differences between the viewpoints of those who ruled Bangladesh before and after August 1975. The government that came to power after August 1975 kept on urging to regard the concept of peace zone in a broader perspective than what was in the original proposal. According to the fresh explanations, in addition to preventing the military presence of the extra-regional powers and dispelling threats, the maintenance of national security of the regional countries was also urged in order to create a peace zone. At the same time the need for destroying conventional weapons along with nuclear weapons in order to declare the Indian Ocean as a peace zone was also emphasized. Bangladesh was aware of the importance of the later against the backdrop of the increasing military activities of India and its extensive preparations for war.

Towards the mid 1970s when Pakistan regarded itself as threatened because of the first atomic explosion by India, Bangladesh continued to support the Indian explanations and justification as to using atomic power in the South Asian region for peaceful purposes. But during the period following August 1975 Bangladesh accepted the concept of disarmament as a whole. At that time Bangladesh was of the opinion that considering arms race as the deadliest threat to world peace total disarmament (nuclear and conventional weapons) should be carried out.

In 1980, a concept of South Asian regional cooperation was put forward to six other states of this region on behalf of Bangladesh, and the south asian association for regional cooperation (SAARC) came into being in 1985. Bangladesh considered that an economic, social and cultural cooperation among the countries of this region could dispel their mutual distrust. At the time Bangladesh put forward this concept of cooperation, there were some conditions to meet in order to create an environment in favour of it in South Asia. Bangladesh aimed at directing this framework of cooperation towards a few well-defined goals through producing economic benefit. These goals included gaining of combined bargaining opportunities for the countries in South Asia, and on the other hand creating an advantageous position for the small countries of this region with regard to India. Although these goals are yet to be materialized, the establishment of SAARC can be regarded as one of the major political goals of the foreign policy of Bangladesh.

The economic goal is still being pursued as a goal of the foreign policy of Bangladesh. Since the Pakistan regime, the issue of foreign loans and grant was one of the major concerns of the government against the backdrop of the overall economic backwardness of the country. Because of poor internal savings on account of low rate of per capita income and lower export earnings compared to import expenditure it was not possible to invest necessary capital for the economic development of the country. Lack of technological knowledge made the situation worse. Against this backdrop each of the governments that have come into power till now has explored sources of foreign assistance. Although after the country's liberation the government adopted socialist economy to expedite inflow of foreign assistance, it attempted to make the internal policies acceptable to the western donors in order to satisfy them. At this time the government, for the satisfaction of the United States, removed the Foreign Minister and Finance Minister who were regarded as 'leftists', and appointed people known as 'pro-Western' to those positions. The investment ceiling for the private sector was at first set at taka 25 lakh, but later it was raised to taka 3 crore in order to win the favour of the donors. As regards nationalization of industries, it was later declared that no more nationalization would take place in the future.

In addition to maintaining good relations with the donors the later governments had to discard the policy of 'socialism' followed by the previous government, and to bring about changes in the economic policies in order to facilitate and expedite receiving of foreign assistance. There were no alternatives but to go for this change to comply with the World Bank policy of framework harmonization.

Since the 1990s the foreign policy makers of Bangladesh gave top priority to economic goal as the principle aim of diplomacy. As proponents of 'economic diplomacy' they meant to say that development of trade and attracting foreign investment were the prime objectives of diplomacy in the post-cold-war situation. As regards foreign trade, with a view to coping with the serious imbalance between the country's imports and exports, attempts were made to increase the export of conventional goods as well as non-conventional commodities (garments, fish, ceramics); and at the same time steps were taken to minimise the imbalance through setting up industries with foreign investment and exporting the goods produced.

Bangladesh wanted its ideological goals to be reflected in its foreign policy through adopting the policy of non-alignment and establishing warm relations with the Islamic world. Moreover, a pronouncement supporting the principle of 'abolition of imperialism and colonialism' was made immediately after the independence. During his visit to the Soviet Union in 1972 Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman pronounced his support to the struggle of the peoples of Laos and Cambodia for establishing their right to control their own destinies without any external interference. Besides, in his speech at commonwealth Conference held in 1973 in Canada, he demanded proper implementation of the Paris Peace Treaty on Vietnam.

The governments who came to power after August 1975 put special emphasis on establishing relations with Islamic Ummah. Although relations with the Islamic world were opened during the period of Sheikh Mujib government, the ties were strengthened later on. With this end in view, the governments in power kept on taking steps to establish Islamic religious values. The Zia government repealed Article 12 of the Constitution which upheld secularism, and added instead 'Bismillahir Rahmanir Rahim' to the Preamble of the Constitution. Next, the Ershad government declared Islam to be the 'State Religion' through the Eighth Amendment. Apart from the objective of enhancing the acceptability of the government to the majority of people, the intention of attracting predominantly the Muslim countries especially the Arab states, and the attraction for petro-dollar, had also been active behind these steps.

Priorities in foreign relations The national interest of Bangladesh is interpreted in terms of the aims of the foreign policy of the country. As regards choice of countries for seeking foreign relations with, Bangladesh has mainly picked out South Asia, the predominantly Muslim countries including the Middle East, the United States, the industrialised European countries, Japan and the People's Republic of China. Foreign relations with chiefly these countries were pursued and strengthened by all the governments who came to power till now. However, the foreign policy of each government did not attach equal importance to these countries or regions; the government in power determined its preference on the basis of its ideology and the interpretation of its 'national interest'. The Awami League government put India and the Soviet Union at the top of its list of preferences. The issue of the 'special friendship' between India and Bangladesh assumed importance because of India's assistance during the War of Liberation against Pakistan, and the ideological unanimity between the leaderships of the two countries. On the other hand, Bangladesh was interested in strengthening its relations with the Soviet Union in view of the country's support in the War of Liberation, and the contemporary global situation.

BNP government, according to its own judgement, considered the United States, China and the Muslim world to be important with regard to foreign policy. Its foreign policy makers endeavoured to develop dynamic relations with the industrialized countries considering the possibility of getting increasing economic assistance, and with the predominantly Muslim countries in order to bring about better balance in foreign relations. Despite China's opposition to War of Liberation, the Zia government was interested in winning friendship of the country on account of its cold relations with India. Although Pakistan recognized Bangladesh during the term of the previous government, diplomatic relations between the two countries were opened during the rule of the Zia government.

Later on, the governments of Jatiya Party and BNP basically retained the preferences of the Zia government with regard to foreign relations. After Awami League came into power for the second time in 1996 it gave priority to strengthening relations with India. The meeting of the Foreign Ministers of four countries (Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Bhutan) held in April 1997 in Kathmandu resolved to form South Asian Growth Quadrangle (SAGQ). The concept was supported by Bangladesh. In the Ninth SAARC Summit held in Male on 12 May 1997, a resolution in support of this concept was also adopted in favour of regional cooperation between two or more SAARC countries.

Apart from bilateral relations, Bangladesh got the membership in various international organisations like the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Commonwealth, SAARC and Organisation of Islamic Conference (OIC), and continued to associate itself with their activities. The country obtained the membership of the Non-Aligned Movement in 1973 immediately after independence. But it failed to get the membership of the United Nations in 1972 because of China's veto on the issue. However, with the normalization of relations with Pakistan, and with China's concurrence Bangladesh was granted admission to membership in the United Nations in 1974. As Bangladesh got the membership of the Commonwealth after independence, Pakistan withdrew itself from this organisation. On the other hand, after Pakistan announced its recognition of Bangladesh in February 1974 Bangladesh participated in the second summit of the OIC held in Lahore and obtained the membership of the organisation. In 1975 Bangladesh played its role as a founder-member of the Islamic Development Bank (IDB), an associate institution of the OIC. As the concept of SAARC was put forward by Bangladesh, it became a founder-member of the organisation. As a founder member of D-8 and BIMST-EC Bangladesh brought these two regional organisations into being in 1997. Bangladesh was elected member in different organs of the United Nations. The country had been a temporary member of the Security Council for a term of two years (1979-1980).

Evolution of foreign relations Bangladesh gives the highest priority to South Asia region with regard to establishing foreign relations. South Asia comes first if issues like geographical location, common historical background, economic condition, and, above all, territorial integrity and the security issues are taken into consideration. In 1980 Bangladesh presented the idea of forming SAARC in association with six other countries of this region, namely India, Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bhutan and Maldives. Cooperation in ten sectors out of the twelve mentioned in the plan prepared by Bangladesh, excepting joint investment and introduction of a common market, started at the outset of SAARC.

Apart from the SAARC set-up, relations between Bangladesh and the other countries of the region were also established within bilateral frameworks. As Bangladesh is bounded by India on its three sides, India remains a permanent factor that effects the foreign policy of the country. Despite India's immense contribution towards the War of Liberation Bangladesh soon found itself in dispute with the country about a number of issues. After independence, the bilateral relations between the two countries at the state level cooled because of clash of interests regarding border trade agreement, sharing of water of the Ganges, balance of trade, and defining the limits of territorial waters. Especially the india-bangladesh friendship treaty signed by India and Bangladesh turned into a controversial issue. Later on, owing to change of government in Bangladesh different viewpoints of the governments of the two countries on resolving disputes together with their ideological differences resulted into clash of interests which eventually made the bilateral relations strained. The problem of sharing of the Ganges water was the most critical among the disputed issues, and Bangladesh was badly in need of immediate settlement of the problem.

Since Independence a number of agreements with the close and friendly state of India on sharing of the Ganges water were signed in succession, and a historic 30-year treaty, the Ganges Water Sharing Treaty, was signed in 1996 which is still in force.

Apart from the Farakka problem, there was a long-standing unsettled problem between India and Bangladesh regarding the transfer of the 'Tin Bigha' corridor to Bangladesh in order to connect Dahagram and Angarpota, two enclaves situated within Indian territory, to mainland of Bangladesh. With a view to resolving this problem India handed Tin Bigha over to Bangladesh in 1992 on condition that Bangladesh citizens would use this corridor for every other two hours. Later on the time-span was changed to one hour. There are two other issues to be settled with India which still carry importance with regard to bilateral relations. Bangladesh has been in dispute with India about the ownership of the South Talpatti Island located in the estuary of the Hariabhanga River. On the other hand, the limits of the territorial waters of the two countries are yet to be defined. At times Bangladesh also confronts problems with 'push back' from the Indian side.

As for other countries in South Asia, Bangladesh's relations with Pakistan had not been normal since the beginning. The disputes over the repatriation of the Pakistani citizens stranded in Bangladesh (the Urdu-speaking people who opted for the citizenship of Pakistan after independence) and the claim of Bangladesh to the assets from the period of undivided Pakistan, which exists since the very beginning, are yet to be settled. The changes in the bilateral relations with Pakistan that took place after August 1975 were influenced by the bitterness with India which developed at this point.

As Nepal is very close to Bangladesh border, some common interests brought the two countries closer. Apart from trading, Bangladesh is in need of Nepal's cooperation with respect to increasing the flow of the Ganges water for itself and controlling floods. On the other hand, there is a prospective alternative for Nepal of using the ports in Bangladesh which can reduce its dependence on the Port of Calcutta. Occasional strains in the relations of these two countries with India drove them to come closer. As for Bangladesh's relations with other states of this region, beyond the bilateral trade relations there are opportunities for cooperation with Bhutan, Sri Lanka and Maldives within the scope of SAARC.

The makers of foreign policy of Bangladesh sought close relations with the United States from the very beginning. Despite the country's negative role in the War of Liberation various initiatives in establishing normal relations with it were taken right from the period of the first government of Bangladesh. The socialist policies of the first government or its intimacy with the Soviet Union at first made the government of the United States unhappy about Bangladesh. In spite of that Bangladesh grew interested in getting project aid, commodity aid and food aid from the United States as soon as diplomatic relations with the country were established. The food aid was the main among all, and it was supplied through PL-480. As Bangladesh decided to export jute-bags to Cuba in 1974, the United States suspended its food aid, and as a result Bangladesh was compelled to cancel its trade agreement with Cuba. Especially, as the export of readymade garments from Bangladesh began, the United States soon became the biggest buyer of this commodity. At present the export of readymade garments plays a key role in keeping the balance of trade with the United States in favour of Bangladesh. In the recent years in view of the bright prospect of obtaining oil and natural gas the United States has been taking more interest in Bangladesh.

Apart from economic consideration, political reasons also made the two countries come closer. During the cold-war era Bangladesh was of importance to the United States as the country was expected to help reduce Soviet influence in the South Asia. Besides, the United States was in need of gaining Bangladesh's support for its foreign policy. On the other hand, the governments who have so far been in power in Bangladesh have sought political and security relations with the United States in view of its influence in the international arena. The combined military exercise of the United States and Bangladesh in the past few years, and the frequent visits from the officers of the US armed forces to Bangladesh bear witness to this. Towards the middle of 1998 the United States proposed entering into an agreement called SOFA (Status of Forces Agreement) in order to gain the right to free movement within Bangladesh for the American soldiers, but finally it was not signed because of the opposition by a section within the government and strong resistance by the masses. However, although SOFA was not signed, Bangladesh signed the agreement called HANA (Humanitarian Assistance Needs Assessment).

Bangladesh has economic relations of varying degrees with the countries of Western Europe. Among them Britain, Germany and Scandinavian countries are involved with projects dealing with technical training, infrastructure development, flood control and rural development.

Owing to the role of the Soviet Union in the War of Liberation Bangladesh formed special relations with the country. Sheikh Mujib picked out the Soviet Union as the destination for his first visit abroad. Things included in the joint communiquE9 issued during Mujib's visit to Moscow (support to the 7-point manifesto of the revolutionary government of Vietnam, European Security and Cooperation Conference, etc) gave such an impression that Bangladesh was pursuing a pro-Moscow principle in its foreign policy. Although the Soviet assistance to Bangladesh did not match up to the country's expectations, Bangladesh was thoroughly dependent on the Soviet Union during the regime of Sheikh Mujib. After the overthrow of Sheikh Mujib the dependence diminished drastically, and the political relations weakened at the same time. Recently steps were taken to improve relations with Russia and to purchase military equipment from it.

Immediately after independence, a bold initiative was taken in order to form relations with the predominantly Muslim countries including the Arab states. This was specially important against the backdrop of Pakistan's continuous propaganda against Bangladesh. These countries gradually accepted the reality of Bangladesh and announced their recognition. The oil producing countries of the Arab world came into possession of huge amounts of surplus money by selling oil at high prices during the oil blockade in 1973. As they decided to assist the developing countries in Asia and Africa with this money, Bangladesh availed itself of the opportunity. Bangladesh also managed to secure employment for its skilled and unskilled workers in the newly-created labour markets of these countries. This way the Muslim world, or the Arab states for that matter, assumed importance in the foreign policy of Bangladesh not only because of religious consideration but also due to economic reasons. During different political crisis Bangladesh took active roles in favour of these countries. Apart from playing an important role in the OIC, Bangladesh has rendered strong support for various bilateral issues like Palestine issue, the interference in Afghanistan by the Soviet Army, Iraq-Iran War, the end of Iraqi occupation of Kuwait, etc.

The relations between Japan and Bangladesh are mainly based on economy. The emergence of Japan as the single donor country in 1979-80 was an important event. Japan stands second in terms of the assistance Bangladesh receives from different donor countries and agencies. Together with receiving economic assistance Bangladesh also aimed at introducing its own products in the Japanese market and attracting Japanese investment. Besides, Bangladesh procures a huge portion of its imports from Japan. The relations between these two countries are gradually improving against the backdrop of the increasing Japanese interest in South Asia. As regards Japanese investment in Bangladesh, although no remarkable undertaking other than KAFCO (Karnafuli Fertiliser Company) is noticed, Bangladesh has been trying to attract Japan as well as other industrialized countries to its market.

Bangladesh's relations with China, a country with whom it had no formal relations till August 1975, started to grow warmer after this point. China, like the United States, opposed to the War of Liberation of Bangladesh mainly on account of its dislike of India and the Soviet Union. However, although the United States recognized Bangladesh, China did not do so; moreover, in unison with Pakistan, it continued to refer to Bangladesh as a land under Indian occupation. All possible means were tried by Bangladesh to normalise its relations with China. China did not respond to any of those efforts; moreover, it vetoed Bangladesh's admission to UN membership in 1972. Although it did not recognize Bangladesh during the rule of the Mujib government, after a tripartite agreement was signed between Pakistan, India and Bangladesh on 28 April 1974, China no longer objected to Bangladesh's inclusion as a UN member.

China announced its recognition of Bangladesh on 31 August 1975. From this point on, the relations between the two countries continued to improve rapidly. China also supported Bangladesh in raising the Farakka issue in the United Nations. Apart from political matters, Bangladesh entered into cooperation with China in the fields of military and economic affairs. China came forward to provide the armed forces and the navy with weapons and training. The relations between these two countries continued to evolve in harmony with the interstate relations in South Asia.

As is the case with any other country, foreign relations of Bangladesh flourished in the country's own interest. The reason that the foreign policy of Bangladesh has not attached equal importance to all the countries can be explained by the reality that its rulers have established foreign relations entirely on the basis of the estimates of benefits that the country expected to receive. [Akmal Hussain]