History

Ancient Period The reconstruction of the history of Bengal in the pre-Muslim period is difficult due to paucity of sources. The difficulty is felt more acutely for the earlier period, down to the 4th century AD, when Bengal came under the Imperial Guptas. For this period we have to depend on very scanty references in the Vedic, Epic and Puranic literature as well as on the available archaeological evidence. From the Gupta period onwards we get written records in the form of epigraphs and literature which contain information on the history of the 'region' of Bengal.

Background In the earliest period Bengal was known to be inhabited by different groups of people, whose names came to be associated with the area inhabited by them. Thus the ancient janapadas of vanga, pundra, radha and gauda came to be recognised as inhabited by non-Aryan ethnic groups bearing those names. samatata was an important janapada in the trans-Meghna region of Bangladesh in its southeastern part (Comilla-Noakhali area). The name of this janapada was purely descriptive and had no ethnic connection. The Chittagong area with its adjacent areas was known by the name of harikela. The existence of these janapadas is known from later Vedic literature, as areas inhabited by non-Aryan people.

Aryan influence in ancient India came to be felt in the northwestern parts in the middle of the second millennium BC and it took a long time for the Aryans to reach the eastern limits of the subcontinent. Thus the people of Bengal felt the tide of Aryanisation quite late. From about 5th century BC it pushed into Bengal from the west and it took about one thousand years to Aryanise the whole of Bengal. By the time Aryan influence reached Bengal, it had become feeble during its long march through the entire area of northern India. Thus the pre-Aryan elements in the culture of the people of Bengal got time to become deeply rooted and even under Aryan influence, which was feeble, they retained many elements in their life and culture which were non-Aryan and pre-Aryan.

Stone tools provide the earliest evidence of human settlements. Prehistoric stone implements have been discovered in various parts of West Bengal in the districts of Midnapur, Bankura and Burdwan. But it is difficult to determine, even approximately, the time when people using them first settled in Bengal. It might have taken place ten thousand years (or even more) ago. The original settlers were the non-Aryan ethnic groups— Nisadas or Austric or Austro-Asiatics — who are now represented by the primitive peoples known as Kola, Bhil, Santal, Shabara, Pulinda etc. At a subsequent age, peoples of two other ethnic stocks settled in Bengal, whose languages were Dravidian and Tibeto-Burman.

Archaeological discoveries during the 1960s have furnished evidence of a much higher degree of civilisation in certain parts of Bengal even at such a remote period as the beginning of the first millennium BC, perhaps even earlier. The discoveries at pandu rajar dhibi in the valley of the Ajay river (near Bolpur) in Burdwan district and in several other sites on the Ajay, Kunar and Kopai rivers have thrown fresh light on Bengal's prehistory. Pandu Rajar Dhibi represents the ruins of a trading township, which carried on trade not only with the interior regions of India, but also with the countries of the Mediterranean world. It is evident from Vedic literature that the Aryans regarded the peoples whom they met in Bengal as barbarians. But the evidence of the higher material culture that has come to light in West Bengal proves beyond any doubt the invalidity of the Aryan idea. But at the same time it must be said that Aryan settlement, which took place gradually over a long period of time, profoundly affected its culture and the process of gradual Aryanisation forms the chief point of interest in the subsequent history of the region. The history of ancient Bengal from the 4th century AD onwards, which appears to us in a more or less clear light, is the history of Aryan domination, both from the political and cultural points of view.

Greek and Latin sources (3rd century BC - 1st century AD) refer to an eastern Indian nation/state called 'Gangaridae' (Greek)/ 'Gangaridai' (Latin) which was very strong militarily. Scholars have located 'Gangaridai' in parts of southern and southeastern Bengal, adjacent to the mouths of the Ganges (Bhagirathi and Padma).

An inscription written in the Brahmi script, found in an excavated site of the old Pundranagar, now represented by the ruins at mahasthan in Bogra district, bear testimony to Maurya rule (3rd century BC) in parts of Bengal. This inscription, the earliest epigraphic record in Bangladesh, seems to have establishes the identification of ancient Pundranagar with modern Mahasthangarh (Mahasthanagad) of Bogra district. Pundranagar is thus the earliest urban settlement in Bangladesh. Archaeological excavations prove the existence of this urban administrative and cultural centre throughout the ancient period, up to the 12th century AD.

The Arthashastra of Kautilya (3rd century BC) refers to the fine cotton fabric of Vanga (south-eastern Bengal) as an important item of her trade throughout India. The Greek and Latin writers (more or less of the same period) also mention it. Thus it may be emphasized that the tradition of weaving fine cotton cloth goes back to a very early period. It was this item of southeastern Bengal, which in the 16th and 17th centuries AD earned worldwide fame as the 'Muslin' of Bengal, and specifically of Dhaka. It may also be mentioned here that the making of terracotta plaques is also a very old art tradition in Bengal. Terracotta plaques have been found in the excavations at Pandu Rajar Dhibi, which prove the antiquity of this art in Bengal.

Gupta Rule The history of Bengal from the fall of the Mauryas (2nd century BC) to the rise of the Guptas (4th century AD) is obscure. The discovery of some beautiful terracotta figurines at Mahasthan, tamralipti (modern Tamluk in West Bengal) and chandraketugarh, datable in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, proves that Bengal continued to flourish in the Sunga and Kusana periods. It appears from the accounts of The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea and Ptolemy that in the first two centuries of the Christian era the whole of deltaic Bengal was organised into a powerful kingdom with its capital at Gange, a great market town on the banks of the Ganges. We have evidence of widespread trade between Bengal and China as well as other countries. The Milinda-Panho mentions Vanga in a list of maritime countries where ships congregated for the purpose of trade.

It is likely that on the eve of Gupta expansion under Samudragupta (4th century AD) Bengal remained divided into independent states. By about the middle of the 4th century AD most independent states came under Samudragupta's rule. Samatata (The trans-Meghna region comprising the Comilla-Noakhali area) was outside his empire, but was reduced to the status of a tributary state. Samudragupta's son and successor, Chandragupta II consolidated his possessions in the east and had to wage wars against the Vangas. Gupta suzerainty over Samatata might have come at a later stage and by the end of the 6th century AD this area appears to have been ruled by a king with his name ending with Gupta (Vainyagupta). Several copper-plates of 5th century Gupta emperors (Kumaragupta- Budhagupta) found in northern Bengal prove that Gupta rule was then well established in that area. They also testify to the existence of a well-structured local administration, in which the representatives of the local people had the opportunity of playing an important part. It goes to the credit of the Gupta emperors that they established an administration in Bengal in which the participation of the local people was ensured. The set-up of the local administration, as evidenced by Gupta copperplates, is undoubtedly the earliest instance of local self-government in Bengal and its significance cannot be overestimated.

Under Gupta rule Bengal was an important province. The period of the Imperial Guptas is generally considered to be the golden age of Indian history. During this period India was under a strong benevolent central government, which brought peace, wealth and prosperity for a considerable time. Bengal enjoyed the benefit of being a part of the All-Indian empire, in which there prevailed efficient administration and political stability. This period is remarkable for its trade and commerce, in which Bengal had her due share. Fa-hsien, the Chinese visitor, states that in the east Tamralipti was the great emporium of trade. The discovery of a large number of Gupta coins and imitation Gupta coins in Bengal prove the economic prosperity of the region under the Guptas.

The period is also remarkable for religious toleration. The imperial Gupta monarchs embraced Brahmanism and styled themselves Paramabhagavatas or Paramadaivatas. But they also patronised Buddhism and Jainism. The people of the period enjoyed an environment of religious toleration and coexistence of religious beliefs. The artistic excellence of the Gupta age is well known and it influenced the artistic tradition of Bengal. The Gupta School inspired the Bengal school of sculptural art.

Shashanka The break-up of the Gupta empire, the invasions of the Hunas and the sudden entry and exit of Yashodharman on the political stage of northern India dealt great shocks to eastern India. In the first half of the sixth century AD southern and eastern Bengal shook off the suzerainty of the Guptas and attained importance as an independent kingdom under local rulers-the kingdom of Vanga. When in the central part of northern India the Maukharis rose to prominence, the later Guptas held sway over Bihar, western and northern Bengal. There was a long-drawn-out struggle between the Maukharis and the later Guptas for the possession of Magadha (southern Bihar) and parts of western and northern Bengal.

Towards the close of the sixth century AD the kingdom of Gauda emerged in parts of western and northern Bengal under the later Guptas. By the beginning of the seventh century shashanka captured power in Gauda. Magadha formed a part of his dominions. Shashanka is the first known king of Bengal to extend his suzerainty over territories far beyond the geographical boundaries of that province. He attempted to establish a north Indian empire and defended the independence of the Gauda empire against a very powerful northern Indian adversary, Harsavardhana. It was no mean achievement on the part of Shashanka to have preserved his own sovereignty against such a powerful adversary. For a king of Bengal it was a great show of strength to have ventured into northern Indian politics. There can hardly be a dispute in regarding him the first important king of Bengal, who could launch Bengal for the first time in her history on aggressive endeavors to establish supremacy over northern India. In this sense he was the forerunner of the aggressive northern Indian policy of the later day Pala rulers like dharmapala and devapala. His capital, karnasuvarna, has been identified with Rangamati, six miles southwest of Baharampur in the Murshidabad district of West Bengal.

Matsyanyayam The death of Shashanka was followed by a period of anarchy and lawlessness. For more than a century, roughly from 650 to 750 AD, the history of Gauda is obscure in the extreme. The period was marked by political chaos and confusion caused by the death of Harsavardhana (646 or 647 AD), the usurpation of his kingdom by his ministers, and the adventures of the Chinese envoy Wang-hiuen-tse were followed by the invasions of the powerful king of Tibet, Srong-tsan-Gampo. In the second half of the seventh century AD Bengal saw the emergence of two new lines of kings: the later Guptas in Gauda and Magadha (western Bengal and southern Bihar) and the khadgas in Vanga and Samatata (southern and southeastern Bengal). Neither of these dynasties, however, appears to have succeeded in establishing a strong rule in Bengal.

In the first half of the 8th century AD Bengal was overwhelmed by repeated foreign invasions, the most notable of which was the invasion of Yashovarman of Kanauj (725-752 AD). The glories of Yasovarman were soon eclipsed by Lalitaditya of Kashmir. The Kashmiri historian Kalhana refers to five Gauda kings defeated by Lalitaditya and this clearly indicates a state of political disintegration in Gauda, which became a field of struggle for the local chiefs who assumed independence in the absence of any central authority. The successive foreign invasions destroyed the political equilibrium and hastened the process of disintegration.

In the century following the death of Shashanka, Bengal saw very little of stable government and the whole country was torn by internal strife and disturbed by invasions from outside. The condition of Bengal towards the middle of the 8th century AD, before the rise of gopala, found mention in one of the Pala records (Khalimpur copperplate) as a state of matsyanyayam. lama taranatha, the Tibetan monk who wrote his History of Buddhism in India in 1608 AD confirms this and writes: "... every Ksatriya, Grandee, Brahman and merchant was a king in his own house (or in the neighbourhood) but there was no king ruling over the country." Gopala, the founder of the dynasty, emerged out of this chaos as the ruler, and as mentioned in the Pala copperplate, put an end to the state of lawlessness (matsyanyayam).

The Sanskrit term matsyanyayam has special significance. The Kautilya Arthashastra explains the term as follows: when the law of punishment is kept in abeyance, it gives rise to such disorder as is implied in the proverb of fishes, ie, the larger fish swallows a smaller one, for in the absence of a law-enforcing authority, the strong will swallow the weak. The contemporary Pala record uses this significant term to describe the prevailing political situation in Bengal. It was a situation of complete lawlessness arising out of the absence of a strong ruling power capable of enforcing law and order. Gopala emerged at the helm of affairs in Bengal and succeeded in putting an end to the state of matsyanyayam.

The process of Gopala's rise to power has been a matter of controversy among historians. Some have argued that the people elected Gopala their king. Without going into the details of the controversy it may be said that Gopala came to occupy the throne at a time when there was chaos and confusion and he must have had the support of a group of influential people or leaders and his success in putting an end to the state of matsyanyayam may have earned popular support for him. It is claimed in the Pala records that Gopala "attained everlasting peace after having overcome the power of those who were acting according to their own desires", or in other words those who had created the situation of matsyanyayam in Bengal.

The Pala Dynasty The dynasty founded by Gopala in the middle of the 8th century AD, ruled Bengal for about four hundred years through many vicissitudes. During this long period of eighteen generations of kings we notice ups and downs in the fortunes of the dynasty. But there can hardly be any doubt regarding the fact that the rule of the Palas formed a glorious chapter in the history of ancient Bengal. The history of the long line of Pala rulers can be viewed under different phases: (I) Period of Ascendancy under Dharmapala (c 781-821 AD) and Devapala (c 821-861 AD); followed by a (II) Period of Stagnation (c 861-995 AD) to be rejuvenated by mahipala i (c 995-1043 AD), who is considered to be the second founder of the dynasty; and the last phase, (III) a Period of Decline and Disintegration, which was halted briefly by the vigorous rule of ramapala (c 1082-1124 AD). But the Pala empire did not last long after him and the final collapse came with the rise of the Senas in the third quarter of the 12th century AD.

The period of ascendancy saw the vigorous rule of Dharmapala and Devapala. In this period the Palas were powerful enough to bid for the mastery of northern India. In this quest they were involved in a tripartite struggle with the Gurjara Pratiharas of western India and the Rastrakutas of southern India. When Bengal saw the rise of the Palas, the Rastrakutas wrested power from the Chalukyas in the Deccan, and the Gurjara Pratiharas consolidated their power in Malwa and Rajasthana. In northern India there was a vacuum after it was swept over by Yashovarman and Lalitaditya. So during the subsequent two generations northern India with its traditional central seat at Kanauj felt a rush on the part of these three powers to fill up this vacuum.

During Dharmapala's reign there were two phases of this tripartite struggle. Though he suffered reverses in the first phase, he achieved some success in the interval between the first and second phases. He succeeded in advancing his influence up to Kanauj, where he put his protege Chakrayudha to rule for some time. The Pala empire extended beyond the boundaries of Bengal and Bihar as far as Kanauj. He may have pushed his empire in other directions as well, but we are not sure about the amount of his success. In the second phase of the tripartite struggle Dharmapala tasted reverses. But there is very little doubt that he succeeded in maintaining his hold outside Bengal and Bihar. Dharmapala's name stands out in the annals of the Pala dynasty as a great conqueror under whose leadership Bengal's influence came to be felt in northern India for quite some time.

Dharmapala was a devout Buddhist and a great patron of Buddhism. He is credited with the foundation of the Vikramashila monastery (at Patharghata, 6 miles to the north of Colgong and 24 miles to the east of Bhagalpur in Bihar), which was one of the most important seats of Buddhist learning in India from the 9th to the 12th centuries AD. somapura mahavihara at Paharpur (in Naogaon district of Bangladesh) is another monumental architectural work of Dharmapala.

Devapala, the son and successor of Dharmapala, maintained the aggressive policy of his father and during his reign the struggle for supremacy over northern India continued. He may have had some initial success, but ultimately the Gurjara Pratiharas succeeded in establishing their empire over Kanauj and adjacent territories. The Pala empire, however, was extended in other directions, towards the southwest into Orissa and towards the northeast into Kamarupa.

The reigns of Dharmapala and Devapala formed the period of Pala ascendancy. These two rulers consolidated their empire in northern and western Bengal and in Bihar. Under them Bengal, for the first time in her history, came to be reckoned as a powerful force in north Indian politics. Bengal could hold its own against powerful rivals. There were all round conquests. But with the death of Devpala the period of glory and a period of stagnation followed which gradually led to decline and disintegration until the Kingdom was rejuvenated by Mahipala I.

The period of stagnation continued for more than a hundred years covering the reigns of five generations of kings. In this period the energy and vigour which were so manifest during the reigns of Dharmapala and Devapala were totally absent. Hardly was there any attempt at expansion, and the Pala kings were not even powerful enough to check incursions from outside or uprisings from inside. The Kambojas rose to an independent position in parts of western and northern Bengal in the middle of the 10th century AD and for a time the Pala empire was confined to parts of Bihar only. The existence of Kamboja Gaudapatis is known from epigraphic records.

The reign of Mahipala I (c 995-1043 AD) brought back some vitality and gave a second lease of life to the Pala empire. He succeeded in bringing back the lost territories in northern and western Bengal and restored the position of his dynasty to a firmer footing. But during the reigns of his successors up to that of Ramapala, the fortunes of the dynasty seem to have fallen to their lowest ebb. The repeated invasions of north Indian powers (Kalachuris and Chandellas) showed the apparent weakness of the Pala kings. But the weakness of the Pala rulers was clearly exposed during the reign of Mahipala II (c 1075-1080 AD) when the revolt of the Samantas succeeded in establishing the independent rule of the Kaivarta chief Divya in Varendra (northern Bengal). When the central authority becomes weak it is natural that the forces of disintegration should play their part. The success of Divya in north Bengal is the most glaring example of this tendency.

The vigour and energy of Ramapala (c 1082 - 1124 AD) was the last significant flicker in the life of the Pala dynasty. He succeeded in restoring Pala authority in northern Bengal and in demonstrating vigour in expansion programmes. But his success was short-lived and his successors were too weak to check the gradual decline. vijayasena, possibly a feudatory ruler in the Pala empire, found opportunity to gather strength, and by the middle of the 12th century AD the Palas were ousted from their possessions in Bengal. Bengal saw the emergence of a new power, the Senas, under the leadership of Vijayasena, whose ancestors were brahmaksatriyas hailing from the Karnata country in southern India.

The long rule of the Pala dynasty, spreading over about four centuries, gave to Bengal the blessings of a stable government, which bore rich fruits in the arts of peace. The Palas could establish a sound administrative structure. Their land-based empire was basically agrarian in nature. Trade and commerce was not that important a factor in Pala economy. Trading activities were possibly limited within the region or at best extended beyond the borders to the adjacent territories. The decline of the port of Tamralipti after the 8th century AD deprived them of the outlet necessary to have a share of the sea-borne trade of Bengal.

The long Buddhist rule of the Palas generated an environment of religious toleration in Bengal and we notice an atmosphere of Hindu-Buddhist amity and co-existence. The Palas initiated a policy of religious toleration. Their liberal patronage of Hindu gods and goddesses as well as Brahmans, who were employed in high state posts, clearly speak of the sagacious policy of the rulers. This also resulted in narrowing the gaps between the two religions and one merging into the other gave rise to new forms and practices which culminated in the evolution of Tantric cults and practices among the Buddhists in Bengal. The socio-religious climate of the Pala period bred a spirit of toleration and mutual coexistence and this spirit had a far-reaching impact in the history of the land.

The Pala period is also significant for various achievements in the fields of arts. The Buddhist Vihara architecture attained maturity in the Somapura Mahavihara at Paharpur and this form influenced the subsequent structures in Southeast Asian countries. The terracotta art of Bengal reached its high-water mark during this period. The Pala School of Sculptural Art came to be recognised as a distinct phase of Eastern Indian Art. The artistic genius of the Bengal sculptors found full expression in the Pala period. Though literary works of the period have not survived in large numbers, yet the ramacharitam, the great poetical work of the north Bengali poet sandhyakar nandi, is a testimony to the quality of composition in a rare poetry form, in which each verse has two meanings. The anthologies of poetry compiled in the subsequent period contain many verses composed by poets of the 10th and 11th centuries AD. A few illustrated palm leaf manuscripts of Buddhist texts of the period evince the excellence of the art of painting. Considering all these achievements the Pala period can rightly be considered the most glorious period in the early history of Bengal.

Dynasties of Southeastern Bengal Southeastern Bengal seems to have preserved an independent political entity for quite some time in the ancient period. From the break-up of the Gupta empire down to the coming of the Senas the deltaic part of Bengal was never assimilated in the political system of north and western Bengal, though from time to time there were attempts to do so.

As early as the first half of the sixth century AD southeastern Bengal formed an independent kingdom, the kingdom of Vanga, and the names of Gopachandra, Dharmaditya and Samacharadeva are preserved in six copperplates. It cannot be ascertained whether Shashanka's empire embraced southeastern Bengal. Scholars theorise about the probable existence of a Bhadra dynasty in this region.

In the second half of the 7th century AD when the Later Guptas captured power in Gauda (western Bengal) southeastern Bengal saw the emergence of the Khadga kings. We know about three generations of Khadga kings ruling Samatata (Comilla-Noakhali area) with their capital at Karmanta-vasaka (identified with Badkamta near Comilla). The names of two semi-independent feudatory chiefs, Lokanatha and Shridharana Rata, are known from copper plates; they ruled in parts of Samatata in the 7th century AD.

Southeastern Bengal emerged as a kingdom of considerable size and strength under the deva dynasty in the 8th century AD with their capital at devaparvata (a city in the Mainamati-Lalmai area, the exact location of which is not yet settled). Four generations of rulers (Shantideva, Viradeva, Anandadeva and Bhavadeva) ruled Samatata and they were contemporaries of the early Pala kings, who held sway over northern and western Bengal and Bihar. The Devas were Buddhists and under their patronage the Mainamati area rose into prominence as an important Buddhist cultural centre. The remains unearthed through archaeological excavations at Mainamati prove the existence of a few Buddhist Viharas (Buddhist religious and educational establishments) namely, Shalvan Vihara, Ananda Vihara and Bhoja Vihara built by the Deva rulers near their capital city of Devaparvata. The cruciform plan of the central shrine, which is seen in a matured form at Paharpur, seems to have originated in the Mainamati area, where we see their earlier and smaller manifestations. The Mainamati remains also contain terracotta plaques of high merit. The sculptural remains of Mainamati prove the development of this art in this region.

In the 9th century AD southeastern Bengal saw the emergence of the kingdom of Harikela, which may have embraced the area from Chittagong to Comilla. The Chandras followed the Harikela rulers and from the beginning of the 10th century AD five generations of Chandra rulers (trailokyachandra, Srichandra, Kalyanachandra, Ladahachandra and govindachandra) ruled for about 150 years (c 900-1050 AD). Their empire embraced a large area in Vanga and Samatata comprising the whole of southern and southeastern Bangladesh and extending as far northeast as Sylhet area. Their capital was at vikramapura in present-day Munshiganj district, south of Dhaka. The Chandras were quite powerful and could match the power of the contemporary Palas of northern and western Bengal. Srichandra was the greatest ruler of the dynasty and under his vigorous rule the Chandra empire witnessed widespread expansion in the territories beyond the borders into kamarupa (Assam). His encounters against Gauda, mentioned in his copper plates, may have been against the Kamboja rulers of the area and this may have indirectly helped the Palas to recapture power in their paternal kingdom (rajyam pitriyam) during the early years of Mahipala I.

In the last quarter of the eleventh century AD the Varman Dynasty, taking advantage of the Kaivarta rebellion in the Pala empire, established their independent rule in southeastern Bengal. Five generations of the Varmans (Jatavarman, Harivarman, Samalavarman and Bhojavarman) ruled for less than a century (c 1080- 1150 AD) before they were toppled by the Senas. The Varmans were Hindus and their capital was also at Vikramapur.

The rulers of southeastern Bengal commanded the sea trade through the vast coastal area of the Chittagong - Comilla region and this is attested to by the find of a large number of silver coins in various places of their empire. The accounts of the Arab merchants and navigators, written between 9th and 11th century AD, contain evidence of flourishing sea trade in the coastal area of southeastern Bengal, specially through the port, which the Arabs called 'Samandar', identified with the area near present-day Chittagong port. The rulers of southeastern Bengal could earn the necessary bullion for the issue of silver coins. We also have evidence of boat building industries in the records of the period. The picture of a flourishing sea-trade emerges very clearly and the resultant economic affluence of the area is beyond any doubt.

The Sena Dynasty Towards the end of the 12th century AD Vijayasena founded the Sena empire. His forefathers hailed from the Karnata country of the Deccan, but he emerged in the politics of Bengal as a feudatory ruler in West Bengal during the rule of the Pala emperor Ramapala. During the period of decline of the Palas after Ramapala, Vijayasena rose into prominence and gradually grabbed power. He defeated the Varmans in southeastern Bengal and then ousted the Palas from northern and western Bengal. He also attempted to expand his empire in northern Bihar and adjacent territories. The Palas lingered on for some time in southern Bihar until the Muslim occupation of the area in the beginning of the 13th century AD.

The Senas held sway over Bengal for more than a century (c1097-1223 AD) in which five generations of kings (Vijayasena, Vallalasena, Laksmanasena, Vishvarupasena and Keshavasena) ruled. But it must be noted that the invasion of Muhammad bakhtiyar khalji put an end to Sena rule in parts of western and northern Bengal (in 1204 AD) and Laksmanasena had to fall back on his possessions in southeastern Bengal where, after him, his two sons ruled for some time. It should also be noted that Vijayasena, after having ousted the Varmans and the Palas, succeeded in bringing the whole of Bengal under one unified rule which continued up to 1204 AD. So in a sense, it can be said that it was only under the Senas that the whole of Bengal came under a single rule. The separate political entity of southeastern Bengal in the preceding four centuries must have had deep-rooted socio-cultural consequences in the history of Bengal. Vikramapura, which was the capital of the Chandras and the Varmans, continued to be the capital of the Senas as well.

The first three kings of the dynasty-Vijayasena (c 1097-1160 AD), vallalasena (c 1160-1178 AD) and laksmanasena (c 1178-1206 AD)-were important figures of the dynasty. The last two (Vishvarupasena and Keshavasena) held on to power in a very limited area in southeastern Bengal. The Sena rulers were Hindus and their rule is considered to be a period of revival of Hinduism in Bengal. Vallalasena is known to have attempted the establishment of an orthodox Hindu social order with caste rigidity. It was an attempt to bring back Hindu orthodoxy in a society that had long lived in a social milieu of religious toleration and Hindu-Buddhist amity. The decline of Buddhism in Bengal may be ascribed to this change in social order. It is not unlikely that Buddhism received a rude shock from this revival of orthodox Hinduism by the Senas and it is rightly said that " it was not Islam which overcame Buddhism, but a more jealous rival of nearer origin'' and it is clear that "Buddhism had already been severely crippled before the Muslims reached Bengal." This scenario of Hindu-Buddhist enmity in Bengal and the attempt at bringing back Hindu orthodoxy in the Sena period may be said to have had a far-reaching impact in the history of Bengal. The scenario may have indirectly helped the cause of Islam in Bengal.

The Sena period is significant from another point of view. The period saw the development of Sanskrit literature in Bengal. It was partly under the direct patronage of the Sena kings and partly due the environment created by them that literary activities in Sanskrit are distinctly visible in this period. By far the most important contribution of Bengal to the poetic literature in Sanskrit is the Gitagovinda of jaydev, who was one of the ornaments of the court of Laksmanasena. Other luminaries of his court were poets dhoyi (author of Pavanaduta), umapatidhara, govardhana (author of Arya-Sapta-Shati) and Sharana, and these five may be regarded as the five ratnas (jewels) of the court of Laksmanasena.

One anthology (saduktikarnamrta) compiled by Sridharadasa during this period stands out as a treasure house of poetical works of the period as also of earlier periods. It contains 2370 poems composed by 485 poets whose dates range from the 10th to 12th century AD. Bhavadeva Bhatta and jimutavahana, two great writers of Dharmashastra, belong to this period. Vallalasena and Laksmanasena were royal authors of no mean merit. Halayudha's Brahmana-sarvasva was also written in this period. There were other works too. It is really noteworthy that 12th century Bengal under the Senas witnessed unprecedented flourish in literary activities in Sanskrit.

Another arena of artistic achievements in the period was in the field of sculptural art. The Bengal school of sculptural art reached its high-water mark in the Sena period and in this phase its regional character marked by individualistic traits became manifest. [AM Chowdhury]

Bibliography  Niharranjan Ray, Bangalir Itihas(Adiparva), Kolkata, 1400 BS; RC Majumdar (ed), History of Bengal, vol-1, Dhaka, 1948; Abdul Momin Chowdhury, Dynastic History of Bengal, Dhaka, 1968; RC Majumdar, History of Ancient Bengal, Kolkata, 1971.

Early Sultanate Period The Muslim rule in Bengal had its beginning in the opening years of the thirteenth century (1204 AD). Long before this, the Arab Muslims had contact with Bengal, which was primarily commercial and religious in nature and limited to the coastal regions.

The process of Muslim expansion in Bengal began with the military exploits of Bakhtiyar Khalji. After his conquest of Bihar in 1203 AD, Bakhtiyar Khalji went to Badaun to pay Qutbuddin Aibak, the viceroy of Sultan Muhammad Ghuri in India, a courteous visit. Aibak entrusted him with the administration of the conquered territories, and encouraged him to continue further onslaughts. On his return from there he reinforced his armies and made a sudden attack on Bengal in 1204-05 AD and captured nadia, the temporary capital of king Laksmanasena. Bakhtiyar took possession of immense wealth and many elephants. He then captured gaur, the traditional capital of Bengal, made it his capital and spent there about two years in making administrative settlement of his newly conquered territories.

He established a kind of clannish feudalism in his territory. He parcelled out the conquered area into units and placed them in charge of his trusted generals. Such a unit was known as iqta and the administrator thereof was called a muqta. Besides administrative settlements Bakhtiyar also found time to lay the foundation of Muslim society in Bengal. To this end he built mosques for congregation, madrasahs for the schooling of Muslim children, and khanqahs for the Sufis to preach religion.

Bakhtiyar then embarked upon his Tibet Expedition. Before proceeding to Tibet, Bakhtiyar made adequate arrangements for the defence and administration of the conquered region in his absence. shiran khalji was sent with an army to Lakhnor (in Birbhum) to guard the frontier region against any possible attack from Orissa (Jajnagar). The western region was placed in charge of iwaz khalji to guard it in the direction of Tirhut and Oudh. ali mardan khalji was posted in the northeastern region, in the vicinity of Rangpur. His Tibet expedition, however, met with a total disaster and he, a broken man, either died of fever or was put to death by Ali Mardan Khalji only three months after his return to devkot.

On the basis of the contemporary and modern sources a fair idea of the geographical extent of Bakhtiyar's dominion may be determined. It comprised, besides his original jagir in the Mirzapur district of Oudh, southern Bihar and a strip of northern Bihar along the northern bank of the Ganges. In Bengal proper it included the districts of Rajmahal, Malda, Dinajpur, Rajshahi, Rangpur and Bogra in the north. The Tista-Brahmaputra-Karatoya river system is regarded as setting the eastern limit of the lakhnauti principality.

The Initial period (1206-1227 AD) Bakhtiyar's death was too sudden to enable him to pay any attention to the question of succession. Ali Mardan, Husamuddin Iwaz and Muhammad Shiran now fell out amongst themselves for the throne.

The period from Bakhtiyar's death in 1206 to Iwaz's death in 1227 may be regarded as the initial period of Muslim rule in Bengal. The first six years of this period were marked by struggles for succession among the generals of Bakhtiyar. The period from 1212 to 1227 was covered by the rule of Iwaz Khalji, the first notable ruler of Muslim Bengal who tried to expand and consolidate the Muslim rule in Bengal in a planned way.

Struggle for power after Bakhtiyar  Ali Mardan, the governor of the northeastern region seems to have been present at Devkot at the time of Bakhtiyar's death. He was, therefore, the first to capture power. But Shiran, governor of the southwestern region, left his post at Lakhnor, marched on Devkot and on his approach, Ali Mardan withdrew to Ghoraghat. Shiran defeated and captured him and kept him confined under Baba Haji Isphani, the Kotwal. The Khalji nobles, then, accepted Shiran as the ruler of Lakhnauti.

Shiran Khalji attempted to consolidate his position by following a policy of conciliation towards the partisans of Ali Mardan by confirming them in their posts. But Ali Mardan, somehow, managed to escape from his confinement, went to Delhi and instigated Qutabuddin against Shiran. Qutbuddin asked Quimaz Rumi, the governor of Oudh, to march upon Lakhnauti and settle affairs there. Accordingly Quimaz Rumi proceeded against Lakhnauti and Ali Mardan stayed on at Delhi.

Hitherto Iwaz, governor of the western region, had not taken part in the struggle. On the advance of Quimaz, he placed his services at his disposal and marched with him towards Devkot. Finding it impossible to oppose the combined forces of Quimaz and Iwaz, Shiran vacated Devkot and withdrew eastward. Quimaz Rumi placed Iwaz in charge of the Lakhnauti dominion and started his return march. At this juncture Shiran gathered his forces and advanced towards Devkot. Quimaz Rumi retraced his steps and inflicted a decisive defeat upon Shiran, who fled towards Moseda and Santosh (Mahiganj in Bogra district) and it appears that his own nobles killed him. Iwaz ruled Lakhnauti for about two years (1208-1210 AD) as governor of Delhi. Meanwhile Ali Mardan had accompanied Qutbuddin to Ghazni and rendered valuable services.

In recognition of this the sultan appointed him governor of Lakhnauti in place of Iwaz. Armed with formal appointment and accompanied by a sufficient number of fresh recruits Ali Mardan proceeded to Lakhnauti. Iwaz submitted peacefully to Delhi's nominee, received him with due respect, made over the charges of the province and went back to his own place. Soon after this Qutbuddin died (1210). In the backdrop of the chaos at Delhi following Qutbuddin's death, Ali Mardan assumed independence at Lakhnauti and styled himself Sultan Alauddin Ali Shah. He thus became the first independent ruler of the Muslim territory in Bengal. Later Iwaz inherited independence from him (1212) and remained so till 1227.

Ali Shah, though a capable and vigorous ruler, was vindictive and ruthless. He mercilessly suppressed the partisans of the deceased Shiran. However, he reasserted the Muslim authority over the southwestern region that Shiran had abandoned when he marched upon Devkot. During his time Bihar was also within the principality of Lakhnauti.

Ali Mardan's ruthless policy of 'blood and iron' soon made him unpopular with the Khalji nobles. Taking advantage of this situation Iwaz emerged from the background, organised the discontented nobles, overthrew and killed Ali Mardan and ascended the throne in 1212 AD with the title of Sultan Ghiyasuddin Iwaz Khalji.

Ghiyasuddin Iwaz Khalji  The reign of Iwaz was significant in a number of ways. It marked the end of the struggle for succession that started after Bakhtiyar's death. He was the first Muslim ruler in Bengal whose coins have come to light and he too pioneered the expansion of Muslim territory in Bengal in a planned way giving new orientation to the mode of warfare and strategy. His policy resulted in appreciable expansion as well as consolidation of the Muslim dominion in Bengal.

He conducted campaigns to the southwest, southeast, northeast and northwest from his capital. He recovered Lakhnor (Birbhum) from Ananga Bhima III (1211-1238), the king of Orissa, and posted his Amirs there. He extended his domain further south to the river Damodar in the Bankura district. The territories of Jajnagar (Orissa), Bang (eastern Bengal), Kamarupa (Assam) and Tirhut (north Bihar) sent him tributes.

In 1225 iltutmish, in order to bring back Lakhnauti to the fold of Delhi, led an expedition against Iwaz, which ended in a treaty. Iwaz had to pay an indemnity of eighty Lakhs of Tankas and 38 elephants, acknowledge the Delhi sultan's authority and read the Khutba and issue coins in his name. Iltutmish then separated Bihar from Lakhnauti, put it in charge of Alauddin masud jani and returned to Delhi. Shortly after Iltutmish's departure, Iwaz expelled Jani. At this Iltutmish sent his son prince Nasiruddin to put down Iwaz. In a pitched battle near Lakhnauti, Iwaz was defeated and along with some of his principal nobles beheaded (1227). Thus came to an end the significant career of Iwaz, by far the ablest of Bakhtiyar's deputies who contributed most to the consolidation of Muslim rule in Bengal.

The Muslim dominion under Iwaz comprised, besides southern Bihar, a compact and fairly extensive area in Bengal embracing the modern districts of Malda, Dinajpur, Rangpur, Bogra and Rajshahi in the north, the districts of Murshidabad, Pabna, Nadia and northern Jessore in the south and those of Birbhum and Burdwan in the southwest. [The districts shall be taken in the sense of their pre-1947 position]

Lakhnauti under Delhi Sultanate (1227-1287) The period from Iwaz's death in 1227 till the establishment of Ilyas Shahi dynasty in 1342 was one of steady expansion and consolidation. Prince Nasiruddin succeeded Iwaz to the governorship of Lakhnauti territory. He united his original province of Oudh with Bengal and Bihar, and fixed his capital at Lakhnauti. This enlargement of his jurisdiction and the fact of his being the son of the Delhi sultan naturally increased the importance of his dominion in contemporary eyes. It was further enhanced when Iltutmish bestowed upon him the title of 'Malik-us- Sharq' (king of the East). He ruled the combined territory for a year and a half. He continued the policy of consolidation started by Iwaz.

On his death in 1229 Malik Ikhtiyaruddin balka khalji, a partisan of Iwaz, assumed power at Lakhnauti. He issued coins in 1230 in the joint name of himself and Iltutmish. But this could not satisfy the Delhi sultan. Iltutmish immediately led an expedition against Balka Khalji and killed him. Then Malik alauddin jani, governor of Bihar, was put in charge of Lakhnauti. Bihar was placed under a separate governor, malik saifuddin aibak.

For some reasons, however, Alauddin Jani was transferred from Lakhnauti only after one year and Saifuddin Aibak was placed over it. Saifuddin Aibak, who ruled over Lakhnauti for a little more than three years, led an expedition to 'Bang', captured a number of elephants and sent them to Iltutmish as presents. Saifuddin died at Lakhnauti in 1236 shortly after Iltutmish.

On Saifuddin's death one of his companions, aur khan aibak assumed power at Lakhnauti. He was challenged in his position, however, by the Bihar governor tughral tughan khan who marched against him, defeated and killed him and became the master of the united territory of Lakhnauti and Bihar. During his rule of about ten years he, instead of seeking an expansion of territory towards the east and southwest Bengal, sought to bring Oudh and the adjoining region of north India under his control. Tughral successfully repulsed an Orissan invasion under Raja Narasimhadava I (son of Anangabhima III) with assistance from Delhi (March 1245). Delhi's assistance came in the shape of the combined army of Malik Qara Qash Khan, governors of Kara-Manikpur (Allahabad) and Malik Tamar Khan, governor of Oudh. Immediately after the retreat of the Orissan invaders, Malik Tamar Khan pressed Tughral Khan for relinquishing the charge of the Lakhnauti province to him. Through the negotiation of Minhaj, the historian, an agreement was reached between the two; Tughral surrendered Lakhnauti and Bihar to Tamar Khan and in return he was allowed to depart unmolested with his treasures and followers.

Tamar Khan died in 1246. He was followed by Malik Jalaluddin Masud Jani (1247-1251) and Malik Ikhtiyaruddin Yuzbak (1251­ -1258), both appointed by Delhi. Yuzbak took up the task of extending the territory in the southwest. Through repeated attempts he defeated Savantar, a son-in-law of Narasimhadeva of Orissa, and captured Mandaran (in modern Hughli). Emboldened by this success Yuzbak assumed independence and struck coins in his own name. He advanced with his army and war-boats upon Oudh and captured it (1255). Thus he became supreme over Lakhnauti, Bihar and Oudh.

Yuzbak next turned his attention towards the northeast and embarked upon a disastrous expedition against Kamarupa (Assam), then under one Koch Hajo, in 1257. After initial success he had to return mortally wounded by an arrow to which he succumbed shortly afterwards. Thus the second Muslim attempt to advance towards the northeast also ended in failure.

After Yuzbak's death one of his fellow tribesmen, Malik Izzuddin Yuzbak, assumed power at Lakhnauti and got the formal appointment from Delhi in 1259. Izzuddin undertook an expedition against 'Bang' but suffered the same fate as had befallen Iwaz a few years earlier. Taking advantage of his absence in eastern Bengal Malik Tajuddin Arslan Khan, governor of Kara, marched upon Lakhnauti and occupied it. In the ensuing fight with his adversary Izzuddin was defeated and killed.

Perhaps Tajuddin Arslan ruled over Bihar and Lakhnauti from 1259 to1265. His son Tatar Khan (1265-1268) succeeded him, and was followed by Sher Khan (1268-1272), a member of Tajuddin Arslan Khan's family. Sultan Balban then appointed amin khan, governor of Oudh to administer Lakhnauti in addition to his original province, and associated with him mughisuddin tughral Khan as deputy governor. This practice of having a deputy governor was an innovation. Balban probably did it either to have a better administration or to ensure check and balance. Amin Khan appears to have remained busy with Oudh affairs, and Tughral did the real work at Lakhnauti.

Tughral's achievement was the conquest of east Bengal from the hands of the lingering Sena dynasty. He led several expeditions to eastern Bengal and reached very near to sonargaon and built the Qila-i-Tughral at Narkilla identified with Larikal about 25 miles due south of Dhaka. The only important Hindu chieftain of east Bengal, who remained outside the realm of the Muslims, was danuj rai in chandradvipa (Barisal). Tughral also led a number of campaigns to the southwestern areas. He aspired to become independent and the rumour of Balban's death provoked him to declare independence openly in 1277; he assumed the title of Sultan Mughisuddin Tughral, issued coins and had the 'khutba' read in his name. Balban, however, suppressed him in 1281 and meted out severe retribution upon Tughral and his supporters

Balban placed prince bughra khan in charge of the province, and started for Delhi early in 1282. On the eve of his departure he instructed Bughra Khan to conquer Diyar-i-Bangala, meaning the remaining portion of eastern Bengal. Balban died in 1287 and Bughra Khan immediately declared independence at Lakhnauti.

House of Balban (1287-1301) Bughra Khan and Kaikaus ruled Bengal independently from 1287 to 1301. At the end of Bughra Khan's rule (1282-1290) the Muslim dominion in Bengal consisted of four distinct divisions: Bihar, the Lakhnauti-Devkot region of north Bengal, the Satgaon-Hughli in southwest Bengal and Sonargaon region in east Bengal. Bugra Khan was succeeded by his younger son ruknuddin kaikaus (1290-1301), whose reign witnessed the expansion of Muslim territory in Bengal in the eastern region and from the revenue 'Bang' he issued coins. His empire extended to Bihar in the west, Devkot in the north and Satgaon in the south.

Kaikaus made important changes in the administration. Probably he divided his empire into two provinces: the province of Bihar under its governor Firuz Aitigin and the province of Lakhnauti, which extended from Devkot in the north to Satgaon in the south, under its governor Jafar Khan Bahram Aitigin, both the provincial governors took the title of Sikandar-i- Sani (second Alexander). Kaikaus himself also assumed pompous title. These titles imply the pomp and power of Bengal.

Shamsuddin Firuz and his successors (1301-1324) shamsuddin firuz shah (1301-1322), who was erroneously thought to be connected with the Balbani family, succeeded Kaikaus. After Bakhtiyar; it was under him that the Muslim territories extended most. Till his time Lakhnauti dominion was confined within Bihar, north and northwestern Bengal, and Lakhnor in southwestern Bengal. Occupation of satgaon in Hughli and Bang towards Sonargaon started in the reign of Kaikaus and under Firuz the process was completed. He also conquered Mymensingh and Sylhet.

Tughlaq intervention Firuz Shah's death was followed by a struggle for succession among his sons. Firuz Shah left the throne to his son Shihabuddin Bughda. However, his ruthless brother ghiyasuddin bahadur, ousted him and seized power. It seems he eliminated all his brothers except Nasiruddin Ibrahim who escaped the slaughter and sent some of his chief men to Delhi for help. It thus offered the much-desired opportunity to the Tughlaqs for intervention in Bengal and Sultan ghiyasuddin tughlaq marched towards Bengal with a large army in 1324.

The Delhi sultan sent a strong army under his adopted son Bahram Khan alias tatar khan along with Nasiruddin Ibrahim; Ghiyasuddin Bahadur was defeated and imprisoned. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq reorganised the administration of Muslim dominion in Bengal; divided it into three administrative units of Lakhnauti, Satgaon and Sonargaon. He confirmed Nasiruddin Ibrahim in the government of Lakhnauti with special power of issuing coins in joint names. Bahram Khan was made governor of Sonargaon and Satgaon. Ghiyasuddin Bahadur was made a captive and taken to Delhi

muhammad bin tughlaq, successor of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, thoroughly re-arranged the administration of Bengal. He freed Ghiyasuddin Bahadur and made him joint-governor with Bahram Khan in Sonargaon on conditions that the latter was to send his son as hostage to Delhi; to strike coins in the joint names of himself and the sultan and to read the Khutba in their joint names. Qadar Khan was appointed governor of Lakhnauti. Nasiruddin Ibrahim was called to Delhi. Satgaon was constituted into a separate governorship with Izzuddin Yahya as the governor.

Ghiyasuddin Bahadur carried out all the terms of the agreement except sending his son to the Delhi court. He continued to issue coins from Sonargaon mint in the joint names of himself and the Tughluq sultan till 1328. However, in 1328, he attempted to shake off his allegiance. Bahram Khan, assisted by other amirs, defeated and killed him, flayed his skin and sent it to Delhi where it was exhibited as a warning to future rebels.

The three regions of Lakhnauti, Satgaon, and Sonargaon were governed for the following ten years (1328-1338) respectively by Qadar Khan, Izzuddin Yahya, and Bahram Khan. In 1338 Bahram Khan died. On his death at Sonargaon his armour-bearer (Silhadar) Fakhruddin captured power, proclaimed independence and assumed the title of Sultan fakhruddin mubarak shah. This acted as a signal for a new series of struggles for power which ultimately led to the establishment of Ilyas Shahi rule in Bengal. It heralded the beginning of the Independent Sultanate that continued for two hundred years (1338 - 1538). [Delwar Hussain]

Bibliography  JN Sarkar (ed), History of Bengal, vol. II, Dhaka, 1948; A Karim, Banglar Itihasa - Sultani Amal, (Bangla) Dhaka, 1977; Muhammad Mohar Ali, History of the Muslims of Bengal (1203-1757), Riyadh, 1985; Sukhamay Mukhopadhyaya, Banglay Muslim Adhikarer Adi Parba (Bangla), Calcutta, 1988.

Iliyas Shahi Period The dynasty founded by iliyas shah ruled Bengal for nearly one hundred and fifty years (1342-1487 AD) with an interruption of about twenty-three years (1412-1435/36 AD). The period of Iliyas Shahi rule is important and significant for various reasons. The Independent Sultanate, inaugurated by Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah, was consolidated and witnessed widespread expansion. The Muslim administration was given a distinct shape in this period. Arts and literature, particularly Bangla literature, flourished. The Muslim rulers were obliged to take the local people into confidence and opened the door for their participation in the administration of the country. Thus the process of transformation of alien Muslim rule into Bengali Muslim rule was started during this period. Above all, the whole territory, which was hitherto known not by any unitary name but by its different regional names such as Vanga, Gauda etc, came to be designated as Bangalah.

Haji Iliyas, the founder of the dynasty and the real founder of the Independent Sultanate of Bengal, was a Sijistani noble. Initially he was in the service of Malik Firuz of Delhi and afterwards came under Izzuddin Yahya, the imperial governor of Satgaon. He rose there to the position of Malik and, in 1338, after the death of Izzuddin Yahya, became the master of Satgaon. Consolidating his power at Satgaon, Haji Iliyas marched against Ali Mubarak of Lakhnauti in 740 AH /1339 AD and was involved in long-drawn hostilities which resulted in the victory of Haji Iliyas. He ascended the throne of Lakhnauti with the title of Sultan Shamsuddin Abul Muzaffar Iliyas Shah in 1342 AD and thereby laid the foundation of the Iliyas Shahi Sultanate in Bengal. Iliyas Shah was a vigorous and efficient ruler and by his sagacity and political acumen earned for himself the titles of Shah-i-Bangalah, Shah-i-Bangaliyan and Sultan-i-Bangalah. He died at pandua in 1358 AD after a reign of about sixteen years and was succeeded by his son sikandar shah.

Sikandar enjoyed a long and prosperous reign of about 33 years and died sometime around 1390 in the course of a fight with his son Azam Shah at Goalpara near Pandua. On his death, Azam Shah ascended the throne with the title of Sultan ghiyasuddin azam shah in 793 AH/ 1390-91 AD. He was a capable ruler with a profound regard for the law. He is also known for his friendly relations with foreign countries. He died in 813 AH/1410-11 AD and was succeeded by his son saifuddin hamza shah who ruled Bengal for a short period of one year and a few months (813 AH/1410-11 814 AH/1411-12 AD). During his reign raja ganesha, a Hindu Zamindar of Bhaturiah in Rajshahi District, became powerful and it was at his instigation that the sultan's slave Shihabuddin killed his master and himself ascended the throne of Bengal. When these things were happening, muhammad shah bin hamzah shah probably declared himself sultan somewhere in Bengal and issued coins. Possibly he could not maintain his position and ultimately was defeated by Raja Ganesha and Shihabuddin and, thus, the rule of the Iliyas Shahi dynasty was interrupted.

Shihabuddin Bayazid Shah, the slave of Sultan Saifuddin Hamza Shah ruled Bengal from 814 AH/1411-12 AD to 817 AH/1414 AD. The cordial relations between Shihabuddin and Raja Ganesha did not last long. Shihabuddin led a revolt against Raja Ganesha and for a time he succeeded in confining him and eclipsing his authority. He assumed the title of Sultan Shihabuddin Bayazid Shah and issued coins in his own name. Soon Ganesha hatched a conspiracy against the sultan, attacked him and killed him in 817 AH/1414 AD. Alauddin Firuz, son of Shihabuddin Bayazid, somehow escaped to southern or southeastern Bengal and tried to establish his authority there. But Raja Ganesha attacked and killed him and himself ascended the throne of Bengal in 817 AH/1414 AD.

House of Raja Ganesha On becoming the ruler of Bengal Raja Ganesha began to oppress the Muslims. At this stage, nur qutb alam, the saint of Pandua, sought the intervention of Sultan Ibrahim Sharqi of Jaunpur. Raja Ganesha requested the saint to exert his influence so that Ibrahim Sharqi withdrew from Bengal. The saint conceded to the request of  Ganesha when the latter agreed to convert his son Jadu to Islam and to install him on the throne of Bengal. Ibrahim Sharqi left Bengal in 818 AH/1415 AD.

Jadu, as Jalaluddin Abul Muzaffar Muhammad Shah, minted coins in 818 AH. He ruled for a short period of one year and a few months when in 819 AH/1416-17 AD his father Raja Ganesha seized the throne and reconverted him (Jalaluddin) to Hinduism. It appears that this time Raja Ganesha ruled Bengal up to 821 AH/1418 AD under the title of Danuj Mardan Dev. His younger son Mahendra succeeded him. But within a very short time he was ousted by his brother Jadu in 821 AH/1418 AD who, after his reconversion to Islam, assumed the title of jalaluddin muhammad shah. He had a peaceful reign of about fifteen years. He died in 837 AH/1433 AD and was succeeded by his son shamsuddin ahmad shah who reigned up to 839 AH/1435 AD. The tyranny of Ahmad Shah drove everybody to despair and two of his slaves, Nasir Khan and Shadi Khan, conspired against him and killed him. Nasir Khan and Shadi Khan soon quarreled over the throne. The former ascended the throne killing the latter, but was destined to rule only for a few days. The nobles soon opposed his authority and slew him.

Later Iliyas Shahi dynasty Following the murder of Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah, the nobles placed Nasiruddin, a descendant of Sultan Shamsuddin Iliyas Shah, on the throne of Bengal in 839 AH/1435-36 AD. Thus the Iliyas Shashi dynasty was restored. Assuming the title of nasiruddin mahmud shah, the new sultan reigned peacefully for about twenty-four years. He died in 864 AH/1459-60 AD and was succeeded by his son ruknuddin barbak shah, who was just, liberal, learned and a wise sultan. He had a fancy for Abyssinian slaves, and recruited them in large numbers. The Habshi slaves, consequently, became a powerful factor in Bengal politics. Barbak Shah died in 879 AH/1474 AD and was succeeded by his son shamsuddin yusuf shah. The distinguishing feature of Yusuf Shah's reign was that he strictly and impartially applied the Sharia laws in state affairs and charged the Ulama to see that the laws of Islam were followed in all spheres of life.

After Yusuf's death (probably in 886 AH/1481 AD), the nobles raised his son Sikandar II to the throne. But the nobles deposed him after a nominal reign of a few days and offered the throne to Fath Shah, son of Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah. Fath Shah assumed the title of jalaluddin fath shah. Towards the close of his reign the Abyssinian slaves became very powerful in the court of Bengal and occupied most of the important positions. Fath Shah was murdered in 893 AH/1487 AD by one of his slaves, named Barbak. With the death of Fath Shah the rule of the Iliyas Shahi dynasty came to an end.

Conquests The period from 1342 to 1487 witnessed remarkable expansion of the territory of the Bengal Sultanate. Consolidating his authority at Lakhnauti, Iliyas Shah launched upon a career of conquest. The time was opportune for him. The political conditions that prevailed at that time on the western frontier of Bengal allured him to turn his attention towards the west. He first attacked Tirhut (North Bihar) and occupied it easily in 745 AH/1344 AD. In 1350 he made a bold thrust across the inhospitable region of Terai in Nepal which was yet untrodden by Muslim soldiers.

Iliyas Shah advanced as far as the capital Kathmandu and returned with immense wealth after destroying some temples. Then he led a campaign against Eastern Bengal, conquered Sonargaon, defeating ikhtiyaruddin ghazi shah in 753 AH/1352 AD, and became the first independent Muslim sultan to have united the entire Muslim possessions in Bengal. Afterwards he led an expedition to the southwest and invaded Jajnagar (Orissa) and advanced as far as Chilka Lake. He also invaded Bihar and soon his dominions extended up to Benaras. His success in the west brought him into direct conflict with Sultan firuz shah tughlaq of Delhi who in vain marched upon Bengal to bring Iliyas Shah under subjugation. As a result of this invasion Iliyas Shah was deprived of his conquests west of Lakhnauti, but he continued to rule Bengal as an independent sultan. Iliyas Shah also succeeded in exerting his influence on the neighbouring Kingdom of Tippera. Towards the close of his reign, he added one more laurel to his crown by leading a successful campaign against Kamarupa in 758 AH/ 1357 AD and conquering a portion of it.

Sikandar Shah, the next sultan, was also a military leader of high calibre. During his reign Firuz Shah Tughlaq again made an attempt to reduce Bengal to submission, but failed to do so and had to return disappointed. Sikandar successfully defended his Sultanate and maintained its integrity. He issued coins from Kamarupa in 759 AH. He might have lost Kamarupa towards the end of his reign. There is very little information about the conquest of Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah. He captured Kamarupa in 1394-95 AD though he failed in his attempt to capture Kamta.

Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah extended his territory up to Fathabad (Faridpur). khan jahan conquered Khulna and Jessore during the reign of Nasiruddin Mahmud. Mahmud perhaps mounted an unsuccessful expedition against Orissa. He is also supposed to have marched upon Mithila to conquer it but Bhairab Singh, King of Mithila might have baffled his attempt. Nasiruddin Mahmud ruled over a vast territory bounded by the districts of Bhagalpur to the west, Mymensingh to the east, Gaur- Pandua to the north and Hughli to the south.

Bakerganj was conquered during the reign of Ruknuddin Barbak Shah. He sent an army under shah ismail ghazi to attack Gajapati, Raja of Mandaran. Ismail Ghazi attacked and defeated Gajapati. Subsequently Ismail Ghazi was engaged in a protracted war to ward off the Assamese intrusion in the northeastern border areas of the Sultanate. Then Barbak Shah appointed Ismail Ghazi to lead an army against Kameshvara, King of Kamarupa. The Kamarupa king surrendered voluntarily and Kamarupa came under the sway of Barbak Shah. He is also reported to have conquered a portion of Tirhut. Barbak Shah ruled over a vast territory comprising the regions of north, east, west, south and southeast Bengal and portions of Bihar.

During the reign of Yusuf Shah the Bengal Sultanate was further extended in western and northern Bengal. Besides, a large part of eastern Bengal came under his control. Jalaluddin Fath Shah continued to rule the Sultanate that he inherited from his predecessors and further extended it to Sylhet in the east and to the river Damodar in the southwest.

Administration The administration of the Iliyas Shahi sultans opened a new chapter in the history of Bengal. The sultans were aware of the fact that their very existence depended upon the co-operation of the local people. So they adopted a liberal policy in administration. Besides the title of sultan, the Iliyas Shahi rulers adopted a variety of other titles. Of these mention may be made of Sultan al-Muazzam, al-Sultan al-Azam, Sultan al-Salatin, Sultan al-Zaman, Sikandar al-Thani, Nasir al-Islam wa al-Muslimin, Ghauth al-Islam wa al-Muslimin, al-Mujahid fi Sabil al-Rhaman, al-Adil, Al-Badhil etc. At the same time, they also recognised the theoretical sovereignty of the Khalifah. But this was only in name; they were independent for all practical purposes.

The administrative organisation of the Iliyas Shahi Sultanate was the result of an evolutionary process; various rulers effected improvements and changes. The sultans had gradually evolved a system of administration for the centre as well as the administrative units. The sultan was the pivot of administration, which depended for its efficiency on his personal supervision. He was the head of the executive and was responsible for the peace and security of the Sultanate and was the chief lawgiver and the final court of appeal. He was also the supreme commander of the army. Though the sultan of Bengal was all in all in the empire, yet the supremacy of the Shariah and the influence of the Ulama limited his power.

The diversity of administration and requirement of spectacular ceremonials necessitated the attendance of many officials and servants of different ranks. The royal household played a significant role in the actual administration of the Sultanate. The sultan also maintained a splendid court. Quite a big retinue of nobles, amirs and high officials of the state attended the court. The sultan himself carried out a good deal of administrative work.

Iliyas Shahi sultans appointed some ministers and high officials and entrusted them with the responsibility of different departments like finance, judiciary, military affairs etc. The chief minister was called the wazir. He was in charge of the office of the Diwan-i-wazirat. He acted as the head of all the departments and kept a vigilant eye on the work of each department. But his immediate concern was finance. Besides the office of the Diwan-i-wazirat others forming part of the state administration were the Diwan-i-Risalat, the Diwan-i-Insha and the Diwan-i-Ariz. The Diwan-i-Risalat dealt with diplomatic and foreign correspondence and kept in close touch with the envoys sent to and received from foreign rulers. The Diwan-i-Insha dealt with royal proclamations and dispatches. The chief of this department was the dabir-i-khas, who was assisted in his work by a number of Dabirs, Katibs and Kar-i-farmans. The Diwan-i-Ariz dealt with army matters. The Ariz-i-Lashkar was the head of this department. High-ranking military officers were entitled Sipah-Salar, sar-i-laskar, Wazir Lashkar and Mir Bahr. References to military ranks such as sar-i-khail, Amir, Malik and Khan are available in different sources. In addition to the four ministries there was the department of justice presided over by the qazi. The kotwal was the head of the police and was responsible for maintaining peace and order in the city. It was his duty to keep the sultan informed of all daily occurrences in his jurisdiction.

For the efficiency of administration, the Iliyas Shahi sultans divided Bengal into a number of administrative units. But these were not homogenous, with uniform administrative systems in them, and their number varied from time to time. Possibly it depended partly on necessity and partly on the prevailing political condition in the centre. The larger administrative units were known as Iqlim, while the smaller units were called Arsah or Mulk. The ruler of an administrative unit was the head of the military and civil administration.

There are references to the administration of some cities, which were variously called Shahr and Qasbah. These cities were not separate administrative units but component parts of bigger units like Iqlim or Arsah. There were also some military outposts known as Thanas. Thanas were placed under the control of the bigger units adjacent to them. The smaller unit after Iqlim and Arash was the Mahal, an aggregate of many villages, and primarily a revenue unit. But later on, in order to enforce revenue regulations and to maintain law and order, some responsibility for civil administration was also given to it.

Arts and literature The Iliyas Shahi sultans were great patrons of the arts and literature. After consolidation of his authority over Bengal, Iliyas Shah rightly realised the necessity of winning the support of the local people. Hence, Iliyas Shah initiated a policy of patronising local culture, art and literature.

The Iliyas Shahi sultans made a bold attempt to develop a grand architectural style befitting the dignity of the new Sultanate. The Iliyas Shahi architectural style represents an amalgam of local and Muslim elements. In fact, it demonstrates reconciliation between the traditional Muslim features and the indigenous architectural elements. The Bengali masons and artisans followed the traditional Muslim pattern in erecting the building and then incorporated local elements such as piers, curved cornices and various types of ornamentation depicting local tradition and motifs in brightly expressive terracotta plaques. These local elements in effect turned the Muslim architecture of Bengal into Bengali Muslim architecture.

Of all the sultans of the Iliyas Shahi dynasty the reign of Sikandar Shah is marked by architectural development such as Bengal had never witnessed before. The most magnificent building of his reign is the adina mosque at Hazrat Pandua, built in 766 AH/1374 – 75 AD. This mosque was planned in the conventional style. It was the most ambitious structure of its kind ever essayed in eastern India. It is a bold creation, unique of its kind. Of the other monuments erected during the Iliyas Shahi period, mention may be made of the tomb of Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah at Sonargaon, the kotwali darwaza, the dakhil darwaza, the Nim Darwaza, the chika building, the chamkathi mosque, the tantipara mosque, the lattan mosque, the Kadamrasul Masjid and the darasbari mosque of Gaur, the mosque of Mullah Ata at Gangarampur in the district of Dinajpur, the mosque of Mullah Simla in Hughli and the Sona Masjid of Pandua.

The period also witnessed the development of calligraphic styles. A beautiful form of Tughra is noticeable in Iliyas Shah's inscription found at Bainapukur, Calcutta. A style was evolved by arranging the shafts of vertical letters rather prominently so as to produce the impression of a row in the Muslim prayer congregation or of a marching army, while the main parts of the letters are set at the base forming loops and ringlets. Nasiruddin Mahmud's Pandua inscription of 863 AH and Barbak Shah's Deotala inscription of 868 AH are two notable examples of this style. The next important development is the setting of curved letters across the shafts producing an altogether new design variously called 'the Bow and Arrow' or the 'Boat and Oar' designs. Two notable examples of this style are Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah's Bhagalpur inscription of 860 AH and the Hatkhola inscription of Ruknuddin Barbak Shah of 868 AH. The high-water mark of this style was reached in the time of Shamsudin Yusuf Shah.

The Iliyas Shahi sultans accorded recognition and status to Bengali language and literature. They extended liberal patronage to the Bengali poets and men of letters. As a result of their patronage, Bengali language and literature developed rapidly. Sultan Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah was famed for his learning and enlightenment and also for appreciating the literary and intellectual attainments of others. He contributed a good deal to the development of Bengali language and literature. Under his patronage shah muhammad sagir wrote his famous poetical work yusuf-zulekha. It effected a revolution in Bengali literature, which was greatly enriched with the addition of the religious stories of Islam and the introduction of the romantic tale as a new theme for Bengali poets.

Probably Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah asked krittivas to write the Ramayana in Bengali. Ruknuddin Barbak Shah extended his patronage to Muslim and Hindu scholars alike. During his reign Zaynuddin composed the rasulbijay and Ibrahim Qayum Faruqi composed the Safarnamah. From the Safarnamah we get the names of a few scholars and poets of the time. They are-Amir Zaynuddin Harwi, Amir Shihabuddin Hakim Kirmani, Mansur Shirazi, Malik Yusuf bin Hamid, Sayyid Jalal, Sayyid Muhammad Rukn, Syyid Hasan and Shaikh Wahedi. Barbak Shah equally extended his patronage to Hindu scholars and poets. During his reign Raimukuta Brhaspati acquired fame and glory. Barbak Shah honoured maladhar basu, the compiler of the srikrishnavijay, with the title of 'Gunaraj Khan'. The son of Maladhar Basu was also honoured with the title of 'Satyaraj Khan'. It is to be mentioned here that the courtiers and nobles of Barbak Shah evinced similar interest in arts and letters. An officer of Barbak Shah named Kuladhara patronised a Brahmin named Govardhana who composed a Sanskrit work titled Puransarvaswa. Shamsuddin Yusuf Shah and Jalaluddin Fath Shah also extended their patronage to the development of Bengali literature and some poets flourished during their periods.

Importance of the Iliyas Shahi period The rule of the Iliyas Shahi dynasty occupies a distinct and significant place in the history of Bengal. The Muslim Kingdom of Bengal, known as the Kingdom of Lakhnauti, was transformed into the Sultanate of Bangalah. During this period, for the first time the different parts of Bengal were united under the sole authority of Sultan Shamsuddin Iliyas Shah. From this time, the united territories of Bengal received the name of Bangalah and its people came to be known as the Bengalis. This unification of Bengal also integrated the Bengali-speaking people into one politico-social union and laid the foundation of Bangalah and Bangalees. The Sultanate founded by Iliyas Shah maintained an independent existence for nearly two hundred years. During this period things changed greatly and the rudiments of a well-organised system of administration started to take shape.

Bengal's economy also made great strides during this time. There was remarkable prosperity in agriculture, industries and commerce. The abundance of agricultural and industrial products and the large volume of trade, both external and internal, evoked the wonder and admiration of foreign merchants and travellers.

Great changes took place in the field of art and architecture. The Iliyas Shahi sultans made a bold attempt to develop a grand architectural style befitting the dignity of the new Sultanate. Bangla language and literature received the patronage of the Iliyas Shahi sultans. Territorial expansion as well as the growth and consolidation of Muslim society marked the Iliyas Shahi period.

The Iliyas Shahi dynasty, with remarkable consistency, produced a succession of able rulers who were noted for their tolerance and enlightenment. To have ruled over a people of an alien faith for nearly seventy years was in itself a great achievement; to be restored was an even greater one. It was a singular proof of their popularity. [ABM Shamsuddin Ahmed]

Bibliography  Ziauddin Barani, Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi, Calcutta, 1862; Yahiya bin Ahmad, Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi, Calcutta, 1931; Abdul Karim, Banglar Itihas (sultani Amal) in Bangla, Dhaka, 1977; ABM Shamsuddin Ahmed, Bengal under the Rule of the Early Iliyas Shahi Dynasty, Unpublished Thesis, Dhaka University, Dhaka, 1987.

Habshi Rule Towards the close of the reign of Sultan Jalaluddin Fath Shah, the Abyssinian (Ethiopian) slaves became a dangerously powerful element in the court of Bengal. Shahzada, a Habshi eunuch and the leader of the Abyssinian slaves usurped the throne by murdering Jalaluddin Fath Shah, the last ruler of the house of Iliyas Shah in 893 AH/1487 AD.

The rule of the Habshis (Abyssinians) in Bengal lasted nearly six years (893 AH/ 1487 AD to 899 AH /1493 AD), during which four rulers (Barbak Shah Shahzada, Saifuddin Firuz Shah, Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah II and Shamsuddin Muzaffar Shah) ruled Bengal.

On his accession Shahzada assumed the title of Sultan Barbak Shah. His rule was characterised by a policy of systematic elimination of opponents. This policy, however, could not save him and Malik Andil ultimately murdered him. Barbak Shah's rule lasted only six months.

Malik Andil, with the consent of the nobles, ascended the throne with the title of Saifuddin Abul Muzaffar Firuz Shah in 893 AH/1487 AD. The Persian chroniclers praised him highly for his benevolence and kindness to the poor and needy. He valued justice and liberality and made noble efforts to secure peace and comfort for his subjects. He was also a patron of art and architecture. From the evidence of his coins and inscriptions it appears that he ruled over a wide tract of Bengal. He either died a natural death or was secretly murdered after a reign of three years in 896 AH/1490 AD.

Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah II succeeded Saifuddin Firuz Shah. During his reign, Habash Khan grew in influence and this excited the jealousy of another Abyssinian slave named Sidi Badr Diwana, who ultimately killed Habash Khan and Mahmud Shah with the help of the paiks. Mahmud Shah's reign lasted a few months.

After the murder of Mahmud Shah II, Sidi Badr ascended the throne in 896 AH/1490 AD and assumed the title of Shamsuddin Abu Nasr Muzaffar Shah. His reign was, for all practical purposes, a reign of terror. In order to get rid of his opponents, he slew many nobles and scholars. He exploited his subjects and collected revenue at extortionate rates, disbanded the greater part of his standing army and reduced the pay of his soldiers. Though a brute, Muzaffar Shah was not altogether a heartless tyrant. During his reign he devoted himself to the promotion of education and culture. He was a patron of saints and built a mosque at Gaur. His reign lasted nearly three years (896 AH/ 1490 AD to 899 AH/1493 AD). His inscriptions and coins indicate that his kingdom included the whole of north Bengal and some portions of Bihar.

The tyrannical rule of Muzaffar Shah alienated the people; Sayid Husain, an Arab by descent and the chief minister of Muzaffar Shah organised a revolt and killed the sultan. With the murder of Muzaffar shah, Habshi rule in Bengal came to an end. [ABM Shamsuddin Ahmed]

Husain Shahi Rule (1494-1538 AD) occupies a significant place in the medieval history of Bengal. It marked the zenith of the Independent Sultanate in Bengal. Husain Shahi rule was characterised by territorial expansion, stabilisation of administration and significant developments in religion, literature, the arts and the economy. In this period Bengal's political isolation from North India reached its culminating point, and this helped her to reinforce her cultural identity. The literary renaissance which characterised the period was but a flowering of the local genius which had remained repressed in the earlier period. Though in this period Bengal did not witness the emergence of any new forms of art, the surviving specimens of fine arts and architecture indicate an advanced stage of development and seem to reflect the prosperity of the period. The Husain Shahi rulers, taking off the cloak of their foreign origin, tried to identify themselves with local aspirations, and the development of the Muslim mind was, more or less, along the lines of the indigenous culture. The period saw the advent of the Europeans in Bengal. Towards the close of the period Mughal rule touched only the outer fringe of Bengal and European trade and commerce were yet to have a proper beginning. The period witnessed the initial signs of the new forces that were destined to shape the life of the country for centuries to come. In that sense the period represents a 'formative period' of Bengal history.

The founder of the dynasty, Alauddin husain shah, occupied the throne by assassinating the Habshi Sultan Shamsuddin Muzaffar Shah, under whom he had served as wazir. He was elected sultan by the leading nobles in 1494 AD. His reign witnessed the territorial expansion of the Sultanate of Bengal. Having conquered kamarupa and Kamta, his troops advanced further into the upper Brahmaputra valley of Assam. He attained some temporary success in his hostilities against the king of Orissa and inscribed the legend 'conqueror of Kamarupa and Kamta, and Jajnagar and Orissa' on his coins. He succeeded in annexing a part of Tippera to his kingdom. Chittagong formed an integral part of his kingdom. Towards the end of Husain Shah's reign a Portuguese mission came to Bengal to establish diplomatic links. Husain's reign ended in 1519 AD. The country enjoyed undisturbed peace and vijay gupta, the contemporary poet mentioned him as nrpati-tilaka (the tilak-mark of kings), jagatabhusana (the adornment of the universe) and Krsna-avatara (the incarnation of Krsna). He was tolerant and liberal in his policy towards Hindus. He appointed them to high posts and patronised their religion.

Alauddin Husain Shah was succeeded in 1519 AD by his eldest son Nusrat, who assumed the title of Sultan Nasiruddin nusrat shah. Taking advantage of the significant political changes that were taking place in northern India Nusrat extended his territory into Tirhut (northern Bihar). Though he gave shelter to a few defeated Afghans, he cleverly tried to avoid any confrontation with babur, who had appeared in the eastern Indian scene after his victory at Panipath(1526). Nusrat professed neutrality and avoided having any connection with the anti-Mughal confederacy that was formed by Mahmud Lodi with Afghan chiefs. But in spite of these maneuverings, Nusrat could not avoid a direct conflict with Babur.

Nusrat faced reverses in the battle of the Ghogra, concluded a peace with Babur and saved Bengal from an impending cataclysm. Nusrat avoided joining the Afghans in the battle of Daurah (1531) in which humayun defeated the Afghans headed by Mahmud Lodi. Bengal's hold on Kamarupa and Kamta was probably unaffected till the end of Nusrat's reign. Due to his preoccupation with the affairs of the northwestern frontier he had hardly any opportunity to pay attention to Assam. Towards the end of 1521 two Portuguese missions came to the court of Nusrat to establish diplomatic relations with Bengal. The portuguese were active during his reign in the Bay of Bengal. His governors in Chittagong had to deal on several occasions with the Portuguese 'menace' in the coastal area off Chittagong.

Nusrat possessed noble virtues; he meted out kind and benevolent treatment to his own brothers and also to the Afghans. Compared with his illustrious father, he appears to be a man of pusillanimous disposition. But one may well bear in mind the circumstances under which he was placed. The weakness of his position was largely due to the uncertain character of Afghan politics and the superiority of the Mughals. Nusrat was a great patron of Bangla literature in which his name finds repeated mention. While visiting his father's tomb at Gaur, one of his slaves is said to have killed him.

The process of disintegration of the Husain Shahi regime, which began in the reign of Nusrat found its culmination in the reign of his successors. Though Nusrat had nominated his younger brother Mahmud to succeed him, a group of nobles put his young son Firuz on the throne with the title alauddin firuz shah (1532). Firuz had a brief reign of only about nine months (1532-33) and was murdered by his uncle, Mahmud. Shridhara, the author of the metrical romance called Vidyasundara has made repeated mention of Firuz and his interest in arts and literature.

ghiyasuddin mahmud shah, the last of the Husain Shahi sultans, could hardly check the centrifugal forces operating in different parts of his kingdom. The governors of outlying regions assumed virtual independence. Khuda Baksh Khan, a governor in the southeastern part of his empire, began to behave like a vassal ruler having extended his sway over the region lying between the Karnafuli and the mountains of arakan. Tippera, taking advantage of Mahmud's weak position on the northwestern frontier, had made a daring bid for expanding her territories at the expense of Bengal. Khuda Baksh probably could hold out against Arakan and Tippera until sher shah finally occupied Bengal.

The problems on the northwestern frontier of Mahmud's empire started with the ascendency of Sher Khan Sur in Bihar. Mahmud had sent an army under Ibrahim Khan to attack Bihar on behalf of Jalal Khan Lohani, the rival of Sher Khan in Bihar. In the battle of Surajgarh (1534) Ibrahim was defeated; this forced Jalal to fall back and paved the way for Sher Khan's ascendancy in Bihar. Taking advantage of Humayun's preoccupations in Gujrat (1535), Sher Khan annexed the territories up to Bhagalpur. In 1536 Sher Khan appeared before Teliagarhi which was defended by Mahmud's army assisted by Portuguese soldiers. Sher Khan appeared before gaur via jharkhand. Mahmud was terrified and Sher Khan extended his territories up to Teliagarhi. Mahmud had allowed the Portuguese to build fortresses and factories at Chittagong and Satgaon and granted them the right to collect rent from the local people. This greatly enhanced the power of the Portuguese in Bengal.

In 1537 Sher Khan's position was secure in Bihar and he controlled the Teliagarhi pass. Sher Khan appeared in Gaur for the second time and demanded a large sum of money from Mahmud as annual tribute. Mahmud's refusal led Sher Khan to besiege Gaur, which fell into the hands of the Afghans in April 1538. Mahmud made a last minute effort to join hands with Humayun against Sher Khan. But at the execution of his two sons in Gaur by the Afghans Mahmud suffered a mental breakdown and died. Thus the independent Sultanate of Bengal came to an end in 1538. Mahmud had failed totally to have a grasp of the precarious political situation that befell him. The year 1538 marks the end of a significant period in the history of Bengal and the beginning of an era of chaos and confusion which troubled her life down to the early seventeenth century.

Administration The Husain Shahi period witnessed consolidation of the administration. The administrative structure was improved. Alauddin Husain Shah was conscious of the fact that administrative anomalies had worked against the stability of the state. He disbanded the paiks and banished the Abyssinians whose conspiracy and ambition had already convulsed the country. Husain addressed himself to the task of political settlement by transferring the seat of administration from Gaur to ekdala, appointing a number of efficient governors in different provinces and reducing disloyal elements. The Bengal administration was possibly a close copy of the administration of the Sultanate of Delhi. The guiding policy of Husain Shahi administration was provided by Husain Shah, and Nusrat, Firuz and Mahmud had hardly any necessity of altering the general policies adopted by the founder of the dynasty. The nobility, composed of heterogeneous elements likes Arabs, Pathans, Mughals and Bengalis played an important part in administration. The nobles of Husain Shahi Bengal do not seem to have been much different from their north Indian counterparts; the military governors enjoyed revenue assignments. The Wazir was possibly the Administrator General closely connected with the finance and military departments at the centre and he could occasionally act as the Sultan's alter ego. The Husain Shahi provinces, variously known as iqlim, mulk or arsah, were as follows: Chatgaon, Mu'azzamabad, Mahmudabad, Fathabad, Khalifatabad, Husainabad (Lakhnauti), Nusratabad, Barbakabad, Satgaon, Muhammadabad, Sajlamankhbad, Hajipur (North Bihar), Monghyr (South Bihar) and the newly conquered areas of Kamarupa and Kamta . Each province was placed under an officer who had the title of sar-i-lashkar wa wazir, combining military and revenue functions. However, it must be said that the provincial administration was not uniform all over the empire. All sections of people enjoyed various advantages under Husain Shahi administration, which was free from religious fanaticism. The rulers might have been actuated by political considerations in following a thoroughly liberal policy; nevertheless, it was quite helpful in promoting the country's interest. The Husain Shahi period was characterised by a gradual rapprochement between the ruler and the ruled, and this ushered in a new socio-political phenomenon in Bengal.

Economic condition The accounts of varthema, barbosa, tome pires (written in the early 16th century) and Joao de Barros (written immediately after the fall of the Husain Shahi dynasty) together with Bengali poems, Persian literature, coins and inscriptions give many indications of developments in the field of economy. Bengal derived her wealth mainly from agriculture, trade and industry. It is not possible to have a precise idea about the ratio of the urban and rural populations. Since the society of medieval Bengal was basically agricultural, people living in villages must have outnumbered those in towns and cities. Considered from the point of view of its economic structure, the village in medieval Bengal did not differ much from its modern counterpart. It had a number of inter-dependent socio-economic groups, which functioned collectively to sustain the life of the entire rural population.

Though mainly based on land and its produce, the village had a limited amount of trade and commerce. In contrast, towns and cities saw the concentration of people associated with administration, trade and commerce. There were a few towns and cities, such as Gaur, Pandua, Satgaon, Chittagong and Sonargaon, whose existence in the period can be explained in terms of political and commercial reasons. Although Alauddin Husain Shah shifted the capital to Ekdala, the importance of Gaur and Pandua, which were capitals in the earlier periods of Muslim rule, does not appear to have decreased. Apart from serving as political centres, these two cities contributed considerably to the commercial life of Bengal. The mint towns of the period, generally located on riverbanks, were not only administrative headquarters, but also commercial centres. Mandaran, at the southwestern frontier and Paragal Khan's headquarters on the Feni river in Chittagong, were military outposts. Bengal had several ports, which greatly facilitated her sea-borne trade. Saptagram (Hughli district) continued to enjoy an important position down to the middle of the 16th century; its religious sanctity and economic affluence have been vividly described in Bangla literature as well as in foreign accounts. Sonargaon, situated between the Laksya and the Meghna, used to export rice and cloth to different parts of the world. Chittagong, located on the Karnafuli and facing the Bay of Bengal, held a precarious position in the commercial life of Bengal, for its possession was being disputed by the rulers of Bengal, Tippera and Arakan.

But it was of unique interest to the Portuguese who called it Porto Grande. In view of the lucrative positions of Chittagong and Satgaon, the Portuguese had covetous eyes on them and controlled their custom houses towards the end of the 16th century. Satgaon, Sonargaon and Chittagong, which have been clearly located on the map of Joao de Barros, maintained economic and cultural links between Bengal and distant parts of the world. Since Bengal is primarily an agricultural country, a vast number of people belonged to the peasantry. Bengal used to produce innumerous varieties of paddy in plenty. Among other agricultural products cotton, sugarcane, ginger, long pepper, turmeric, betel nut, pulses and lentil may be mentioned. The flourishing state of Bengal's sea-borne trade in the period presupposes the growth of internal trade also. Moneylenders, moneychangers and merchants together with the local markets find repeated mention in the vernacular literature.

The commercial activities also presuppose the growth of industry. The variety and richness of the textile manufactures of Bengal became famous. Fine cotton fabrics, jute fabrics and silk products of Bengal attracted foreign buyers. Sugar of fine quality was produced in Bengal. The metal industry flourished; blacksmiths and goldsmiths constituted distinct economic classes.

The Husain Shahi rulers issued numerous silver coins and only a few gold coins. Nusrat and Mahmud issued copper coins, which were rare pieces. There is a sudden influx of silver coins, very rich in variety, in the Husain Shahi period. This undoubtedly suggests that there was a considerable increase in the volume of foreign trade in the period.

It appears from the accounts of the foreigners that the upper class in Bengal lived in affluence. However, it is difficult to ascertain the economic condition of the general people. chaitanya bhagavata contains numerous references to famines that affected the life of the people of Bengal in the Husain Shahi period. The prevalence of slavery indicates the presence of poverty among certain sections of people.

The expansion of maritime trade, the process of commodity production connected with it and the existence of an organised money economy were expected to have brought about significant changes in the socio-economic life of Bengal. But a number of deterrents in the sphere of trade, industry and agriculture belie that expectation. Foreign merchants largely controlled foreign trade. Tome Pires noticed some definite deterrents in the process of capital formation. These were: weak position of the Bengali merchants in international trade, the lack of commercial organisations as well as technological skills in shipping and the low level of business ethics. The agricultural sector remained at a primitive level and capital formation in the agro-based economic sector was also an impossibility. The administrative system was mainly based on the agricultural surplus, and this checked the process of capital formation.

Religious life The religious life of the period had a number of distinct elements such as Islam, vaisnavism, tantricism and the manasa, Nath and Dharma cults. Islam played a dominant role in the life of the people. A careful study of the vernacular literature shows that there prevailed a sort of folk Islam among the common mass of Muslim population. This popular Islam seems to have been influenced by accretions. Some Muslims even used to worship Manasa. Nusrat Shah constructed a building to preserve therein the footprint of the Prophet (Sm). Originating in Buddhism, this type of fetishism seems to have made its way into Hinduism, Christianity and Islam. Muslim mystics of the time had brought a wide variety of tantric and yogic ideas and customs to the fold of Islam. The idea of Adi-deva or the primordial god and Adya-shakti or the primordial goddess, obtaining in most of the mystic cults of medieval Bengal, appears to be a modified version of the Sangkhya conception of Purusa and Prakrti, which are regarded as the underlying principles of cosmic evolution. The period witnessed the growth of the Pir cult in Bengal.

sufism greatly influenced the society of the period. nur qutb alam, the Chistiya Sufi who died in the first half of the 15th century, was held in high esteem by Alauddin Husain Shah. Nusrat Shah built the tomb of akhi sirajuddin at Sadullahpur. Two Chistiya Sufis – Shaikh Husamuddin Manikpuri, the chief disciple of Nur Qutb-i-Alam, and Raji Hamid Shah – greatly influenced the religious life of the time. The Madariya sect, introduced in Bengal in the middle of the 15th century, continued to exist in the period; the Shunya-Purana refers to the Madariya slogan dam Madar (the breath of Madar). Maulana Shah Daulah settled in Bagha (Rajshahi district) and became the founder of several generations of Pirs in that part of Bengal. Ismail Ghazi, who was executed at the order of Barbak Shah in 1474, was highly venerated in this period. Muslim Sufis and saints, who were held in high esteem by the people, appear to have brought about a cultural synthesis by adapting yogic and tantric philosophy to Islamic mysticism. Epigraphic records and literary evidence indicate the growth of Shi'ite influence in the period. Bengal had direct maritime connection with the Persian Gulf and Iraq. Barbosa found a good number of Persian merchants in Bengal in the early 16th century. The process of the growth of Shi'ism in Bengal was accelerated in the 17th century by the large-scale immigration of Persians into Bengal due to socio-political insecurity under the Safavids. 

Sri chaitanya gave Vaisnavism a reality which it did not hitherto possess. Although the name of Chaitanya has become closely associated with the history of Vaisnavism, he does not appear to have worked out any theological or philosophical system for the sect. The emotional mode of worship emphasised by Chaitanya gave to Vaisnavism an added popular interest and made it widely known. It produced a rich literature in Bengali and Sanskrit. Chaitanya did not abolish the caste system, but he opened the door of his emotional faith to all people irrespective of caste and religion. This catholic attitude stood in sharp contrast with the conservative spirit of Brahmanical orthodoxy and amounted to a social revolution in those days. The growth of Chaitanyaism and the consequent mental loosening of a significant section of Bengali people must be understood against the background of the contemporary socio-political scenario.

Dominated politically by the Muslims, the Hindus of Bengal were being gradually influenced by Muslim ideas and practices. Islam had sympathy and understanding for some of the local cults and for the mystic ideas underlying their philosophical systems. Converts to Islam under these circumstances must have grown in number. The discursive Brahmanical mind found expression in the highly abstruse Navya Nyaya. Chaitanya preferred the path of devotion. Brindavanadasa regrets that people were worshipping Shakta-tantrik goddesses like chandi, manasa and Vashuki and that even those who cared to read the gita and the Bhagavat, did not attach any importance to the worship of Krishna or Vishnu. The writers of the period believed that Chaitanya descended on earth with a view to fully establishing the cult of bhakti. Thus it may be maintained that Chaitanya's movement originated in response to certain social demands in order to bring about some sort of reconciliation of the different conflicting elements prevailing in the Hindu society of Bengal. The social appeal of Islam must have been greatly minimised when Vaisnavism grew in Bengal and took the sting out of Brahmanism, and this saved the country for Hinduism.

The Dharma cult seems to have found a regular place in the religious life of 15th and 16th century Bengal. It has been contended that the cult is a very primitive one, possibly of Austric origin, which has accommodated within itself a variety of Aryan and non-Aryan elements with accretions from buddhism including the term Dharma, one of the three jewels of Buddhism. While the cult seems to be of composite character, the idea of superiority of Dharma to the Hindu triad- Brahma, Visnu and Shiva-dominates Dharmite cosmology. The relationship of the cult with Muslim political power and with Islamic ideas is also significant. Lurking traces of the cult are available in the Manasavijaya of Bipradas. The Dharma cult seems to have developed passive sympathy for Islam, possibly under the pressure of the Brahmanical persecution it suffered in those days. This may have led to an understanding between the Muslims and the followers of the Dharma cult in the social sphere.

Nathism seems to have been one of the important religio-philosophical systems of Husain Shahi Bengal. The followers of this Shaiva-tantrik cult used to consider the attainment of immortality to be the highest object of their life. They believed that liberation could be achieved by adopting certain methods of yogic discipline. The goraksavijay contains a versified form of the popular story of Goraksanatha and matsyendranath that must have had wide circulation among the people of those days.

Of the other cults, those of Manasa and Chandi were quite prominent. The cult of Manasa, the snake goddess, appears to be of a composite nature containing Vedic, Puranic and non-Aryan elements. It also had a connection with the Dharma cult. The Manasamangal Kavya details the achievements of the goddess, while Raghunandana codified the rituals appropriate for the worship of the goddess. The worship of the goddess Chandi is frequently mentioned in the Chaitanya Bhagavat and Mukundarama's Chandimangala, written towards the end of the 16th century, recounts the achievements of this goddess. Saivism had become quite decadent in the period, over-shadowed by the Shakta-tantrik cults of Manasa and Chandi.

There was a considerable amount of influence of Tantricism on the Hindu society of Bengal. Contemporary works are replete with references to Tantric ideas and practices and it seems that their influence saturated Brahmanical religious practices and beliefs. Contemporary literature shows that the relation between the Vaisnavas and the Tantrics was quite unfriendly.

Cultural Life The period witnessed intense literary activities, both in Sanskrit and the vernacular language which had attained a form quite capable of giving expression to the religious and secular ideas of the people. The growth of the Bangla language and the birth of Bangla literature symbolised the triumph of the native culture. The Husain Shahi period marks the culmination of this sociological process. Persian, which was linked with the royal court, seems to have had very little impact on the life of the ordinary people and could not produce literature of any importance in the period. The rulers of this period took an active interest in the growing indigenous literature by patronising some of the poets of the time. The sultans, because of their close association with the local people, gave status and dignity to Bangla language which now began to play the role that was played by Sanskrit in the pre-Muslim period. Of the Bengali poets of the period, Yashoraj Khan, Kavindra Parameshvara, Srikara Nandi and Sridhara received direct court patronage. Vijay Gupta and Bipradas, composers of verses on the snake-cult, are eloquent in admiring Husain Shah, though they do not appear to have received any court patronage. Kavindra Parameshvara and Shrikara Nandi, the translators of the mahabharata, were patronised by paragal khan and his son Chhuti Khan respectively, both being governors of Chittagong under Husain Shah. Of the few writers of Vaisnava padas, Yashoraj Khan served as an official of Husain Shah, while Sheikh Kabir, a Muslim poet, was intimately connected with Nusrat Shah. Shaikh Zahid composed his yogic philosophy Adya Parichaya in 1498-99 AD, and this may be taken as the earliest Bangla poem dealing with yogic ideas (if Charya songs are excluded) and was the precursor of such poems as the Goraksavijaya, Jnanapradipa, Yogakalandar and Jnanasagara.

The period also marked the growth of secular elements in Bangla literature. Shridhara, the author of Vidya Sundara, received patronage from prince Firuz, son of Nusrat Shah. Slightly earlier a Muslim poet, Sabirid Khan, wrote another Vidya Sundara. The literary tradition established by these poets was followed by the 18th century poet bharatchandra. It is strange to note that no prominent biography of Chaitanya was written during his lifetime. Chaitanya Bhagavat and chaitanya charitamrita were composed towards the end of the 16th century. The only work ascribed to the Husain Shahi period is the Kadacha of Govindadas, but its historicity is doubtful and it has been considered spurious.

In the Husain Shahi period we notice a sudden outburst of literary activities in Sanskrit. Greatly influenced by the digest-writers of the earlier period, the great smarta scholar Raghunandan produced his Smrtitattva, which gives the sum total of Smrti-knowledge that the Hindu mind possessed in those days. He was the main exponent of the Navadvipa School of Smrti and his injunctions are found even today to govern the socio-religious behaviour of orthodox Bengali Hindus. It was in Nyaya that the Bengali scholars of the period excelled. The Navya Nyaya school of Navadvipa was founded by Raghunatha Tarkika Shiromani. Among his numerous works the Tattvachintamani-didhiti and the Padartha-khandanam are famous. The Navya Nyaya School of Raghunatha, founded in the beginning of the 16th century continued to influence the intellectual life of India down to the 18th century. Madhusudana Sarasvati wrote his Advaitasiddhi on Advaita doctrines in the 16th century. But the most prominent aspect of Sanskrit literature of the period was the biographical works on Chaitanya written by people who had been associates of the great reformer. murari gupta wrote his Chaitanya Charitamrta immediately after the death of Chaitanya (1533 AD).

Other biographies of Chaitanya that were written afterwards heavily drew upon Murari's work. Besides Chaitanya's biographies poems and dramas dealing with the Radha-Krsna cult were produced in the period. Notable among them are the dramas—Dana-keli-kaumudi, Lalita-madhava and Vidagdha-madhava - by Rupa Gosvami and the kavyas, Hangsa-duta and Uddhavasandesha of Rupa, and Bhramara-duta of Rudra Nyaya Vachaspati. Rupa also produced an anthology of poetry, Padyavali, containing poems by a number of medieval and ancient poets.

During the Husain Shahi period Bengal's contributions to architecture and calligraphy were quite significant. Architecture and calligraphy were largely the product of court patronage. Similar was the case probably with music, particularly its classical branch which seems to have flourished in the court. The numerous Arabic and Persian inscriptions, as also the coins, of the period portray the excellence of the art of writing. The period saw the development of modified forms of Naskh and Thulth styles, but the 'Bow and Arrow' form of the ornamental Tughra style was the most prominent calligraphic style of the period. In this period the Tughra style became more elegant, flowery and decorative. The reign of Nusrat Shah witnessed a sudden flowering of pictorial art as is evidenced by the ten folio illustrations of the first part of the Sikandarnamah, known as the Sharafnamah, which details the exploits of Alexander in the East.

By the time the Husain Shahi rulers came to power Bengal had already developed a tradition of architecture. The Iliyas Shahi rulers had inaugurated a rich architectural tradition with an individuality of its own. Husain Shahi architecture is a continuation of this earlier tradition. The ruins of the darasbari madrasa laid bare at Gaur (on the Bangladesh side of the medieval city) exhibit the vigour of the building art in the period. The gumti gate (doubts have been raised about its Husain Shahi origin), the qadam rasul, the Jahanian Mosque, the bara sona mosque and the chhota sona mosque represent the glorious 'brick style of Bengal' developed in the Husain Shahi period. The buildings built outside the capital seem to have followed the plan and design of buildings erected in the metropolis. The sura mosque and Hemtabad mosque in Dinajpur, the bagha mosque, the navagram mosque in Pabna, the majlis aulia mosque of Pathrail in Faridpur, the Sankarpasha mosque of Sylhet and the goaldi mosque in Sonargaon are some of the excellent examples of the period. The Bara Sona mosque and the Chhota Sona mosque have a spirit of ornamentation which most of the earlier structures lack.

In this period we find a predominance of stone cutters' art. The architecture of the period clearly reveals local influences and gives expression to Bengal's life and culture. The old terracotta art, which had its revival in the earlier period of Muslim rule, continued under the Husain Shahi rulers. The local elements, which found expression in the architecture of the period, include the curvature of the cornice and the copy of the chauchala. The Husain Shahi artists copied the terracotta art on stones. In its rich ornamentation the Husain Shahi style stands in strong contrast with the rather austere style of the previous phase. [AM Chowdhury]

Bibliography  JN Sarkar (ed), History of Bengal, II, Dhaka, 1948; Sukhamay Mukhopadhyay, Banglar Itihaser Dusho Vachhar: Svadhin Sultander Amal, Calcutta, 1962; A Karim, Banglar Itihas: Sultani Amal, Dhaka, 1987; MR Tarafdar, Husain Shahi Bengal, 2nd revised ed,